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BioMed Exam 3
Biomed Exam 3 Nervous System
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| choose all of the glial cells located in the CNS | oligodendroglia, microglia, epdendymal cells, astrocytes |
| the coronal plane will cut through the face to the back of the head in one slice (T/F) | False |
| the nose is located in the midline (T/F) | True |
| the nose is inferior to the tongue (T/F) | false |
| motor axon, but NOT sensory axons make up a typical nerve (T/F) | false |
| motor and sensory myelinated axons constitute the gray matter in a spinal cord and form the classic butterfly shape (T/F) | False |
| an efferent nerve is a synonym for which of the following? | motor nerve |
| which substances would be attracted to a negative charge? | Na+, Ca++, Fe++ |
| an electrical potential refers to a situation when there is an imbalance (not equal) of positive and negative charges (T/F) | true |
| all of the folioing are important ions for nerves EXCEPT... | Pb (lead) |
| what are some of the important ions for nerves | Na (sodium) K (Potassium) Cl (chloride) Ca (Calcium) |
| leakage channels require an electric current to close (T/F) | false |
| voltage gated channels when closed will still allow some ions to pass through (T/F) | false |
| which of the following is responsible for keeping the K+ ions inside the neuron | proteins |
| channels using a second messenger typically use which of the following to function? | G proteins |
| resting membrane potential (RMP) is typically a negative what mV? | 70 mV |
| the sodium potassium pump uses ATP for energy (T/F) | true |
| the sodium potassium pump moves 2 sodium ions out of the cell for every 1 ion of potassium it moves back into the cell (T/F) | false |
| the nerst equation determines the electrical gradient for... | one ion |
| the resting membrane potential is created by | large proteins, potassium leakage channels, sodium potassium pump |
| why do graded potentials only act for a short distance? | the open channel does not affect/open the next channel the stimulus to open the channel didn't last long enough |
| when the positive K ions move from inside to outside of the cell, the inside of the cell becomes | more negative |
| when the positive Na ions move from inside to outside of the cell, the inside of the cell becomes | more negative |
| if an equal number of K+ ions move out of a cell when compared to Cl- ions moving into a cell, the cell will become | more negative |
| if Na+ ions rush into a cell, the cell is said to be | depolarized |
| stretch channel stimuli typically result in channel | opening |
| choose all of the areas on a neuron that have voltage gated Na+ channels | initial segment Axon |
| if the graded potential adds up to a -57 mV the Na+ channels will open (T/F) | False |
| right after threshold voltage gated K+ channels open (T/F) | false |
| voltage gated Na+ channels are responsible for hyperpolarization phase of an acton potential (T/F) | false |
| the Na/K pump is responsible for getting back to RMP from the hyperpolarization phase (T/F) | true |
| you absolutely cannot have another action potential during depolarization and the first part of re-polarization (T/F) | true |
| any un-myelinated axon conducts action potentials at a slower speed than a myelinated axon (T/F) | true |
| unmyelinated axons have fewer voltage gated Na+ channels than myelinated axons (T/F) | false |
| TTX acts to block... | Na+ channels |
| local anestesia acts to block... | only TTX Na+ channels |
| the greater the number of action potentials the greater the stimulus (T/F) | true |
| the greater the stimulus however doesn't mean that more neurons are activated (T/F) | false |
| nodes of ranvier are found on unmyelinated axons (T/F) | false |
| the jumping of action potentials over myelin is called saltatory conduction (T/F) | true |
| electrical synpases are typically located along dendrites (T/F) | true |
| there are voltage gated ____ channels located on the axon terminal | Na+, K+, Ca++ |
| when the positive Na ions move from outside to inside the cell, the inside of the cell becomes... | depolarized |
| the type of graded potential that occurs when K+ ions move out of he cell is an | IPSP (inhibitory post synaptic potential) |
| spatial summation refers to how fast a neuron is stimulated to reach threshold (T/F) | false |
| temporal summation refers to how many neurons stimulate a dendrite(T/F) | false |
| what happens to the neurotransmitter once it leaves the axon terminal? | diffuses into the synaptic cleft binds to a receptor is broken down by an enzyme is taken back up by the axon terminal |
| glycine and aspartate are both examples of inhibitory neurotransmitters (T/F) | false |
| glutamate and norepinephrine can result in excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) (T/F) | true |
| which of the following will result in keeping the neurotransmitter within the synaptic cleft longer than normal? | block enzymatic breakdown |
| a glutamate agonist can | bind to glutamate receptors can cause EPSP mimic glutamate actions |
| strychnine is a glycine antagonist (T/F) | true |
| monoamine oxidase (MAO) typically breaks down the neurotransmitter norepinephrine (T/F) | true |
| which of the following is a sensory modality that humans do NOT possess? | X-rays |
| a water ballon hitting you in the face is changed to a graded potentials through transduction (T/F) | true |
| second order neurons have encapsulated receptors called Meissner corpuscles (T/F) | false |
| pseudounipolar neurons are not shaped like typical multipolar neurons so they don't have an axon hillock (T/F) | false |
| which of the following is another name for graded potential? | generator potential receptor potential |
| which receptor types are responsible for light touch | meissner's corpuscles merkel's disks |
| slowly adapting sensory neurons never stop producing action potentials (T/F) | false |
| smell and pain are both examples of rapidly adapting neurons (T/F) | false |
| an example of an interoreceptor is... | tongue muscle spindles |
| if you pick up a barbell and hold it steady, you will sense the barbell weight with... | golgi tendon organs |
| you can sense how far open your mouth is from which of the following receptors? | muscle spindles, golgi tendon organs, ruffini corpuscle |
| reflexes are unplanned movements that you cannot stop (T/F) | false |
| what are two subdivisions of the nervous system? | central nervous system (CNS) peripheral nervous system (PNS) |
| what makes up the central nervous system | brain and spinal cord |
| what makes up the peripheral nervous system | all nervous tissue outside the central nervous system |
| what are three subdivisions of the PNS? | somatic, autonomic, enteric |
| what is the somatic nervous system of the PNS | sensory neurons that convey information from somatic receptors in the head, body wall and limbs and from receptors for special senses of vision, hearing, taste and smell to the CNS. Motor neurons to skeletal system only |
| what is autonomic nervous system of the PNS | sensory neurons primarily located in visceral organs such as the stomach, and lungs to the central nervous system motor neurons from smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands not under conscious control and involuntary |
| what is enteric nervous system of the PNS | brain of the gut and is involuntary neurons that extend most of the length of the GI tract and monitor chemical changes within GI as well as stretching of its walls |
| cell body in an axon does what | contains a nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm that includes typical cellular organelles |
| what do the dendrites do in an axon? | receiving of input portion of the neuron contain numerous receptor sites for binding chemical messengers from other cells |
| what does the axon do in an axon? | propagates nerve impulses towards another neuron, muscle fiber or gland cell |
| what is the axon hillock or initial segment? | nerve impulses arise at the junction of the axon hillock and initial segment |
| what is the function unit of the nervous system? | neuron which forms the complex processing networks within the brain and spinal cord and connects all regions of the body to the brain and spinal cord |
| define nerve | bundle of hundred to thousands of axons plus associated connective tissue an blood vessels that lies outside the brain and spinal cord serves a specific region of the body |
| define motor neuron | convey action potentials AWAY from the central nervous system to effectors (muscles and glands) in the peripheral nervous system through cranial or spinal nerves |
| define ganglia | swelling or knot, small masses of nervous tissue consisting primarily of a neuron cell bodies that are located outside of the brain and spinal cord |
| what is an alternative name for sensory neurons | afferent neurons convey action potentials into the CNS through cranial of spinal nerves |
| what is an alternative name for motor neurons | efferent neurons convey action potentials AWAY from the central nervous system to effectors |
| list three different types of neurons | multipolar, bipolar, unipolar |
| what is a multipolar neuron | usually have several dendrites and one axon most neurons in the brain and spinal cord as well as motor neurons are multipolar |
| what is a bipolar neuron | have one main dendrite and one axon found in the retina of the eye, the inner ear and the olfactory area of the brain |
| what is a unipolar neuron | have dendrites and one axon that are fused together to form a continuous process that emerges from the cell body sensory receptors that detect a sensor stimulus such as touch, pressure, pain or thermal stimuli |
| what are the neuroglia of the CNS | astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells |
| what do astrocytes of the CNS do? | star shaped cells, largest and most numerous create a blood brain barrier which restricts the movement of substances between the blood and interstitial fluid of the CNS |
| what do oligodendrocytes of the CNS do? | responsible for forming and maintain the myelin sheath around central nervous axons |
| what do microglia of the CNS do? | function as phagocytes removing cellular debris formed during normal development of the nervous system |
| what do ependymal cells of the CNS do? | produce and monitor and assist in the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid and form the blood cerebrospinal fluid barrier |
| what are the neuroglia of the PNS? | schwann cells, satellite cells |
| what do Schwann cells of the PNS do? | form myeline sheath by encircling the PNS axons myelinate a single axon |
| what do satellite cells of the PNS do? | surround cell bodies and provide structural support and regulate the exchange of materials between neuronal cell bodies and interstitial fluid |
| what is the difference between neuroglia cells and neurons? | neuroglia do not generate or propagate action potentials and they can multiple and divide in the mature nervous system |
| what makes up a myelin sheath? | consists of multilayered lipid and protein covering generated by either Schwann cells (PNS) or oligodendrocytes (CNS) |
| what is the effect a myelin sheath has on an axon | electrically insulates the axon of a neuron and increases the speed of nerve impulse conduction |
| define white matter | composed primarily of myelinated axons whitish color of myelin gives white matter is name |
| define gray matter | contains neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, un-myelinated axons, axon terminals and neuroglia appears grayish because the Nissil bodies impart a gray color and there is little to no myelin in these areas |
| frontal or coronal plane | creates anterior and posterior |
| sagittal plane | creating left and right |
| transverse plane | superior and inferior sections horizontal |
| midsagittal plane | down midline, perfectly half and half |
| parasagittal | parallel to the midsagittal plane one section is larger than the other |
| coverings of the spinal nerves goes from outside to inside... | epineuron, perineuron, endoneuron |
| epineurium goes around | entire nerve |
| perineurium goes around | individual fasicle |
| endoneurium goes around | individual axon |
| what are the units of measurements used for resting membrane potential | volts or milivolts resting membrane potential -70 mV |
| in case of injury or disease, what fils the spaces formerly occupied by neurons | neuroglia |
| how does current flow in living cells | the flow of ions constitutes the electrical current |
| what is the mechanism by which current flows across living cells | electrical gradient and chemical gradient |
| what is the chemical gradient | ions move from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration |
| what is the electrical gradient | positively charged cations move towards a negatively charged area and negatively charged charged anions move towards positively charged area |
| why is the membrane more permeable to K+ than to Na+ | plasma membranes have many more potassium ion leak channels than sodium ion leak channels |
| describe how leakage channels differ from gated channels | leak channels are channels that are always open gated channels are open in response to a chemical (ligand), mechanical (touch, pressure, vibration, or tissue stretching), or voltage (change in membrane potential) stimulus |
| what are the three types of channels | ligand-gated channels mechanically gated channels voltage gated channels |
| what are ligand gated channels | opens and closes in response to the binding ligands (neurotransmitters, hormones, and particular ions) |
| what does acetylcholine do | opens cation channels that allow Na+ and Ca2+ to diffuse inward and K+ to diffuse outward |
| what are mechanically gated channels | opens and closes in response to mechanical stimulation in the form of vibration, touch, pressure or tissue stretching the force distorts the channel from its resting position opening the gate |
| what are voltage gated channels | opens in response to a change in membrane potential (voltage) participate in the generation and conduction of action potentials in the axons of all types of neurons |
| describe how a second messenger is used to open a gated channel | G proteins only, hormone binds to a receptor, triggers G-protein to open the gate and allow the ion through the receptor are not apart of the channel |
| what are the three type of stimuli that can open mechanically gated channels? | vibration, pressure, stretch |
| what are the two primary conditions that promote the resting membrane potential | electrochemical gradient with more K+ leakage channels proteins attract more positive ions inside sodium/potassium pump |
| how does the sodium potassium pump maintain resting membrane potential | 3 Na+ out for every 2 K+ in |
| if cell membrane were only permeable to potassium ions, why would the concentration of K+ ions in cytosol and extracellular fluid NOT become equal | large proteins inside the cell do not allow the K+ ions to leave the cell easily and attract them back inside the cell with their negative charge |
| if a stimulus makes sodium gates open... | the positive sodium ions that enter through the sodium channels make the inside the cell slightly less negative |
| when the depolarization reaches a certain threshold... | more sodium channels open and the charge of the inside of the cell is revered from negative to positive |
| when the inside of the cell reaches a certain positive charge... | sodium channels shut down, potassium channels open and the positive potassium leave returning the cell to slightly negative inside and slightly positive outside |
| what will ultimately return the cell to normal resting rate | sodium potassium pump |
| what is a graded potential | small deviation from the membrane potential that makes the membrane either more polarized (inside more negative) or less polarized (inside less negative), usually no action potential |
| why do graded potentials only act locally? | current gradually dies out as the charges are lost across the membrane through leakage channels |
| what is an action potential | sequence of rapidly occurring events that decrease and reverse the membrane potential and then eventually restore it to the resting state |
| what are the two main phases of an action potential | depolarizing phase re-polarizing phase |
| describe the all or none principle | action potentials wither occur completely or it does not occur at all |
| what is a threshold | an action potential occurs in the membrane of the axon of a neuron when de-polarization reaches a certain level termed threshold about -55mV in many neurons |
| describe the primary mechanism responsible for the depolarization phase of action potential | rushing in of Na+ causing the depolarizing phase of the action potential inflow of sodium ions causes the depolarizing phase |
| describe resting state | voltage gated Na+ are in resting state and closed, voltage gated K+ are also closed small buildup of negative ions inside the cell, small buildup of positive ions outside the cell |
| describe graded potential | mechanical stimulus opens mechanically gated channel that allow passage of cation into the cell a depolarizing graded potential occurs because the membrane potential becomes inside less negative than at rest |
| describe depolarizing phase | stimulus causes the membrane of the axon to depolarize to threshold and voltage gated Na+ channels open rapidly both electrical and chemical gradients favor inward movement of Na+ and the resulting inrush of Na+ causes the depolarizing phase |
| describe re-polariztion phase | voltage gated Na+ channels become inactive and close voltage gated K+ channels open more slowly and produce the repolarizing phase of action potential |
| describe hyperpolarization phase | while the voltage gated K+ channels are open the outflow of K+ may be large enough to cause an after hyperpolarizing phase of the action potential inside the cell becomes even more negative |
| what are the mechanisms responsible for the re-polarization phase of an action potential | inactivation and closing of Na+ channels the outflow of K+ through slow opening channels slower opening of the voltage gated K+ channels and the closing of the previously open voltage gated Na+channels produce the repolarizing phase of action potential |
| what is refractory period? | period of time after action potential begins during which an excitable cell cannot generate another action potential in response to a NORMAL threshold stimulus |
| what are the two phases of refractory period? | absolute refractory, relative refractory |
| what happens during absolute refractory period | even a strong stimulus cannot initiate a second action potential coincides with the period of Na+ channels activation and in-activiation |
| what happens during relative refractory period? | period of time during which a second action potential can be initiated but only a larger than normal stimulus coincides when the voltage gated K+ channels are still open after inactivation of Na+ channels |
| inside of the cell goes in positive direction = | depolarized |
| inside of the cell goes in negative direction = | hyperpolarized |
| graded potential what is open? | ligand and mechanical ion channels open |
| threshold what is open? | voltage gated Na+ channels open |
| depolarization what is open | voltage gated Na+ channels open |
| repolarization what is open and closed? | voltage gated Na+ closing voltage gated K+ opening |
| hyperolarization what is open | voltage gated K+ still open |
| what is continuous conduction | step by set depolarization and re-polarization of each adjacent segment of the plasma membrane action potential propagates only a relatively short distance in a few milliseconds |
| what is saltatory conduction | occurs along myelinated axons and occurs much faster than continuous conduction nodes of rangier (where no myelin sheath) have many voltage gated channels and this is where current flows |
| what are A axons | largest in diameter, myelinated and fastest action potentials touch, pressure, position of joints and some thermal |
| what are B axons | smaller diameter than A but larger than C myelinated and saltatory conduction impulses from viscera to the brain and spinal cord |
| what are C axons | smallest in diameter, un-myelinated and longest propagation time |
| what are the two mechanisms by which the intensity of a sensory timulus is determined | frequency of action potentials- how often are they generated number of sensory neurons recruited by stimulus |
| light touch generates... | low frequency of action potentials less neurons |
| firm pressure generates | larger number of neurons, high frequency |
| characteristics of graded potentials | arise from dendrites ligand gated or mechanically gated ion channels communication over short distances |
| characteristics of action potentials | arise at trigger zone and propagate along axon voltage gated channels for Na+ and K+ communication over longer distances |
| what does TTX do? | effectively blocks action potentials by inserting itself into voltage gated Na+ channels so they cannot open |
| how do local anesthetics work? | block pain and other somatic sensations by blocking the opening of voltage gated Na+ channels so action potentials cannot propagate past the obstructed area |
| what are presynaptic neurons | a nerve cell that carries a nerve impulse towards a synapse cell that sends a signal |
| what are postsynaptic cells | cell that receives a signal |
| what is a postsynaptic neuron | carries a nerve impulse away from a synapse or an effector cell that responds to the impulse at the synapse |
| what are the advantages of electrical synapses | faster communication directly through gap junctions synchronization or coordinate the activity of a group of neurons |
| where are electrical synapses usually found? | smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and brain sometimes |
| what is a chemical synapse | presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes are close but do not touch and are separated by a synaptic cleft nerve impulses conduct across the cleft in indirect communication |
| in a chemical synapse, the presynaptic neuron coverts an ___ signal (nerve impulse) into a ____ signal (released neurotransmitter) | electrical signal chemical signal |
| describe the location and role of calcium channels at chemical synapses | nerve impulse arrives at a synaptic end bulb of a presynaptic axon and depolarizing phase of the nerve impulse opens voltage gated Ca channels, calcium flows inward through opens channels and trigger exocytosis of the synaptic vesicles |
| why are chemical synapses usually one way | only synaptic end bulbs of presynaptic neurons can release neurotransmitter and only the postsynaptic neuron's membrane has the receptor proteins that can recognize and bind that neurotransmitter |
| opening of chloride channels causes... | hyperplarization because chloride move into the cell and the inside of the cell becomes more negative |
| what are EPSP? | Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential neurotransmitters causes depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane because it brings the membrane closer to threshold |
| opening Na+ channels allows the... | inflow of Na+ which causes depolarization |
| opening of K+ channels causes.. | hyperpolarization because K+ moves out of the cell and the inside of the cell becomes more negative |
| what is an IPSP? | inhibitory postsynaptic potential neurotransmitter that causes hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane and is inhibitory to action potential because generation of action potential is harder |
| what are the three mechanisms that act to remove neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft | diffusion enzymatic break down reuptake |
| why is removal of the neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft necessary? | essential for normal synaptic function because if a neurotransmitter lingered it would influence the postsynaptic neuron muscle fiber or gland cell indefinitely |
| what is spatial summation? | results from the buildup of neurotransmitter release simultaneously released from several end bulbs onto one neuron |
| what is temporal summation? | neurotransmitter released from 2 or more firings of the same end bulb onto a second neuron |
| if the total excitatory effects are greater than the total inhibitory effects but less then threshold results in | EPSP that does not reach threshold subsequent stimuli can more easily generate a nerve impulse through summation because the neuron is slightly depolarized |
| if the total excitatory effects are greater than the total inhibitory effects and threshold is reached the result is | one or more nerve impulses will be triggered and continue to be generated as long as the EPSP is at or above threshold level |
| if the total inhibitory effects are greater than the excitatory effects... | the membrane hyperpolarizes and the result is inhibitory of the postsynaptic neuron and an inability to generate a nerve impulse |
| what part of the neuron contain principally ligand gated channels | dendrites, cell bodies |
| what part of the neuron form the trigger zone | junction of the axon hillock and initial segment of axon |
| what part of the neuron contain voltage gated Na+ and K+ channels | axon terminals and synaptic end bulbs |
| what are the excitatory neurotransmitters? | glutamate (acts on Ca++ channels) aspartate (acts on Ca++ channels) adenosine, ATP, ADP, AMP |
| what are the inhibitory neurotransmitters? | glycine (acts on Cl- channels) GABA (acts on Cl- channels) |
| list 4 neurotransmitters that may either be excitatory or inhibitory | acetylcholine, norepinephrine and epinephrine, serotonin, dopamine |
| what does endorphins do? | inhibit pain by blocking the release of substance P |
| what does substance P do? | enhances perception of pain |
| what are the 4 mechanisms by which the effects at chemical synapses can be modified by drugs? | neurotransmitter synthesis can be stimulated or inhibited neurotransmitter release can be enhance or blocked neurotransmitter receptors can be activated or blocked neurotransmitter removal can be stimulated or inhibited (reuptake) |
| what does acetylcholinesterase do? | inactivates Ach by splitting it into acetate and choline fragments breaks down the enzyme acetylcholine |
| what does prozac do? | selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor that provides releif from some forms of depression inhibiting reuptake of serotonin and prolongs the activity of this neurotransmitter at synapses in the brain |
| what are the catecholamines? | norepinephrine epinephrine Dopamine |
| what is monoamine oxidase? (MAO) | enzyme the breaks down catecholamines an inhibitor would not allow the breakdown of catecholamines |
| why is sytychnine lethal? | it is a poison that binds and blocks glycine receptors and the motor neurons generate nerve impulses without restrain so no reuptake or breakdown happen diaphragm cannot relax and victim cannot inhale and suffocation results |
| what is an agonist | agent that binds to receptors and enhances or mimics the effect of a natural neurotransmitter, opens the channel |
| what is an antagonist? | agent that binds to and blocks neurotransmitter receptors, blocks the channel |
| definition of perception | conscious awareness and interpretation of sensations and is primarily a function of the cerebral cortex |
| define modality | each unique type of sensation such as touch, pain vision or hearing given sensory neuron carries information for only one sensory neuron |
| what make up general sensations | somatic senses and visceral senses |
| what are somatic senses | tactile sensations, thermal sensations, proprioceptive sensations |
| what are visceral senses | provide information about conditions within internal organs |
| what are special senses | sensory modalities of taste, smell, vision, hearing and equilibrium |
| what is transduction? | mechanical energy is transduced into graded membrane potential |
| what are the three types of sensory receptors | exteroceptors, interoceptors, proprioceptors |
| what are exteroceptors? | located near or at the external surface of the body sensitive to stimuli originating outside the body and provide information about the external environment |
| what are interoceptors? | located in blood vessels, visceral organs, muscles and the nervous system. They monitor conditions in the internal environment |
| what are proprioceptors? | located in muscle, tendons, joints and the inner ear provide information about body position, muscle length and tension and the position and movement of your joints |
| what is a receptor potential | trigger the release of neurotransmitter through exocytosis of synaptic vesicles, the neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the synaptic cleft. In separate cells |
| what do merkel discs do? | encapsulated cell type that generate light touch sensations |
| what do meisnner corpuscles do? | encapsulated cell type that generate light touch sensations |
| what do Ruffini do? | encapsulated cell types that generate pressure and stretch in ligaments and tendons |
| what do Pacinian corpuscles do? | encapsulated cell types that generate deep pressure |
| what do free nerve endings do? | generate tickle and itch |
| what are proprioceptive sensations? | allow us to know where our head and limbs are located and how they are moving even if we are not looking at them |
| what do muscle spindles do? | tells us muscle length |
| what do tendon organs do? | determines how heavy something is or how big the load is |
| what is a reflex? | fast, involuntary unplanned sequence of actions that occurs in response to a particular stimulus, can be controlled at times |
| what is a spinal reflex? | when integration takes place in the spinal cord gray matter patellar reflex or knee jerk |
| what is a cranial reflex? | if integration occurs in the brain stem rather than the spinal cord tracking movements of your eyes while you read |
| what is a stretch reflex? | causes contraction of skeletal muscles in response to stretching of the muscle, monosynaptic reflex arch |
| what is a tendon reflex? | operates as a freedback mechanism to control muscle tension by causing muscle relaxation before muscle force becomes so great that tendons might be torn polysynaptic |
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