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AniEco Test 3
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| allelopathy | effect of metabolic products of plants (excluding microorganisms) on the growth and development of other nearby plants |
| zero-growth isoclines | an isocline along which the net population growth is zero |
| competitive exclusion principle | hypothesis that when two or more species coexist using the same resource, one must displace or exclude the other |
| character displacement | the principle that two species are more different where they occur together than where they are separated geographically |
| functional response (predator) | change in rate of exploitation of a prey species by a predator in relation to changing prey density |
| numerical response (predator) | change in size of a population of predators in response to change in density of its prey |
| type I functional response | rate of prey mortality due to predation is constant, a function of the efficiency of predators |
| type II functional response | per capita rate of predation increase in a decelerating fashion only up to a maximum rate that is attained at some high prey density |
| type III functional response | rate of prey consumed; slow at first and then increasing in an S-shaped (sigmoid) fashion as the rate of predation reaches a maximum |
| search image | mental image formed in predators, enabling them to find prey more quickly and to concentrate on a common type of prey |
| aggregative response | movement of predators into areas of high prey density |
| optimal foraging theory | tendency of animals to harvest food efficiently, selecting food sizes, or food patches that supply maximum food intake for energy expended |
| marginal value theorem | predicts the length of time an individual should stay in a resource patch before leaving and seeking another |
| predator defenses | evolved characteristics that help prey avoid detection or capture |
| chemical defense | the use by organisms of bitter, distasteful, or toxic secretions that deter potential enemies |
| cryptic coloration | coloration of organisms that makes them resemble or blend into their habitat or background |
| object resemblance | a prey species assumes the appearance of some feature in the environment, such as a leaf, to avoid detection |
| flashing coloration | hidden markings on animals that, when quickly exposed, startle or divert the attention of a potential predator |
| warning coloration or aposematism | conspicuous color or markings on an animal that serve to discourage potential predators |
| Batesian mimicry | resemblance of a palatable or harmless species, the mimic, to an unplatable or dangerous species, the model |
| Mullerian mimicry | when many unpalatable or venomous species share a similar color pattern |
| protective armor | hard outer covering of an animal body, such as shells of turtles and spines of porcupines, that deters or makes the owner somewhat invulnerable to most enemies |
| behavioral defenses | aggressive and submissive postures or actions that threaten or deter enemies |
| predator satiation | a predator defense mechanism involving the physiological timing of reproduction by a prey sepecies,. plant or animal, to produce a maximum number of seeds or young within a short period--more than predators can possibly consume =more survival of offspring |
| constitutive (permanent) defenses | fixed feature of an organism, such as object resemblance, that deters predators |
| induced defenses | defense response brought about or induced by the presence or action of a predator; for example, alarm pheremones |
| secondary compounds | chemicals that are not involved in the basic metabolism of plant cells |
| quantitative inhibitors | the secondary compounds that are produced by the plant in large quantities |
| qualitative inhibitors | the secondary compounds that function as defenses against herbivory that are present in small to minute quantities |
| Know the different forms of predation: | Carnivory, Herbivory, Omnivory, Cannibalism |
| Carnivory | The killing and eating of animals by other another animal |
| Herbivory | feeding on plants |
| Omnivory | Feeding on plants and animals - ex. monkey, bear |
| Cannibalism | interspecific predation - ex. sharks |
| Lotka-Voltera Prey equation: | dNprey/dt = rNprey-cNpreyNpred rNprey=exponential model of pop growth cNpreyNpred=mortality term that represents the removal of prey from the population by the predator |
| Lotka-Voltera Predator equation: | dNpred/dt=b(cNpreyNpred) - dNpred b(cNpreyNpred)= birthrate, which is the products of the effiency with which food is converted into population growth dNpred = predator mortality |
| Birthrate of the predator is affected by: | population size of the prey |
| What do the predation models mean? or what is mutual population regulation? | they link predator and prey populations, each functioning as density-dependent regulator on the other 2)when prey/pred equations are solved, they show that the two populations rise and fall in osscilations |
| A single term, consumption of prey (CNpreyNpred), regulates: | Prey (regulates mortality) predator (regulates birthrate) |
| Functional Response (CNpreyNpred) | the relationship between the number of prey and the per capita rate of of consumption |
| Numerical Response (b(cNpreyNpred)) | the relationship between the increase consumption of prey and increase density of predators |
| CNpreyNpred | consumption of prey |
| with more prey, | more prey is consumed. with more prey consumed, predator population size increases, then decreases prey population, which decreases predator population which increases prey population which starts they cycle again. |
| Functional response relates prey consumed to prey denisty: | as prey density increases, search time decreases. handling time may remain unaffected |
| Functional Response (Ts) | period of search time for food |
| Functional Response (Th) | period of handling time of food |
| Type I functional reponse | search time greater than consumption. no handling time. positive linear relation to prey density. |
| Type I functional response example | filter feeders, spiders |
| Type II functional response | search time and handling time negatively correlated. per capita predation rate increases in a decelerating fashion only up to a maximum rate that is attained at high prey density and the proportional predation rate declines as prey density increases |
| Type II functional response example | most predator and prey relationships |
| Type III functional response | at low densities of prey, rate of consumption is very slow. Creates a sigmoid curve. proportional predation rate has a peak before it declines. |
| Type III functional response example | dik dik of Africa with the Cheetah and certain fish that eat waterboatmen |
| Reasons for slow predation rate at low density availability of coverage | at low densities, easier to hide than with high densities |
| Reasons for slow predation rate at low density search image | predators' way of recognizing prey as potential item for food; if the prey is new to the area, then predators may not have acquired the search image for them |
| Reasons for slow predation rate at low density switching | turning to a more abundant alternate prey instead of the low population prey |
| Numerical Response to changing prey density and example | increase in reproduction ex. increase in seeds=increase in rodents=increase in weasels (increased reproduction) |
| Aggregative response to changing prey density and example | Movement of predator into high prey densities ex.BIRDS - red shanks with number of inverts, red breasted warbler with larvae |
| Optimal foraging theory | suggests that natural selction should favor individuals that maximize their energy or nutrient intake per unit of effort (aka efficient foragers |
| With Optimal foraging theory: the less time you spend foraging the more time you can spend on | defense, avoiding predators, searching for mates and caring for young |
| Cost in optimal foraging theory | time and energy spent foraging |
| benefit in optimal foraging theory | measured in terms of energy or nutrient gain, which is assumed to be correlated to fitness |
| Three decisions to make when foraging | (1) what food to eat (2) where and how long to search (3) how to search |
| choosing prey is based on: | (1) energy the predator gets from the prey (2) time spent foraging (search and handling time) |
| handling time | how long it takes an individual to take and consume the material (ex. pied wagtail) |
| Marginal Value Theorem (MVT) | predicts the length of time an individual should stay on a resource patch before leaving and seeking another |
| MVT based on three aspects: | (1) richness of food patch (prey density) (2)time required to get there (travel time) (3) time required to extract the resource (foraging time) |
| When graphing MVT, a blue line represents | maximum rate of returm |
| When graphing MVT, a green line represents | the cumulative gain from foraging activities in the patch, which takes into consideration the travelling time |
| When graphing MVT, the rate of the return | the cummulative energy gain divided by the initial cost in travel time and foraging time |
| MVT example | parasitoid wasps - they lay their eggs on the predators of plant. This relationship is mutualistic. |
| With MVT where do foragers spend most of their time | in a high quality, nearby patch - least amount of time spent in a low quality, far away patch. |
| The Eurasian owl | diet choice based on prey population size - chioce of eating voles or passering birds (willow tits and crested tits) when the birds are not being eaten, they can nest nearer the outside of the tree |
| Coevolution | the evolution of adaptions of two different species is based on the reciprocal selective pressures from each one of the species |
| Coevlolution example | impala speed and lion speed, tobacco plant (toxic = nicotine) tobacco hornworm - only one able to survive the toxin. |
| Constitutive prey defenses | fixed features of an organism |
| induced prey denfences | features that only occur in the presence or by an action of a predator |
| Prey defenses: chemical | bitter, distasteful, or toxic chemicals used to deter predators Induced ex.- skunk, stinkbug, octopus |
| Prey defenses: cryptic coloration | coloration on an organisms that allows them to blend into their surroundings ex. (flounder, sloth= constitutive) (octopus, chameleon=induced) |
| Prey defenses: object resemblance | an organsims resembles an object in the environment to avoid detection from predators examples: katydid and walking stick |
| Prey defenses: flash coloration | hidden markings that are quickly exposed to startle or divert the attention of a predator ex. sage grouse, glass winged butterfly, white tailed deer |
| Prey defenses: warning coloration | bright colors that warn predators that the prey is toxic or unpalatable ex. monarch butterfly - and other milkweed butterflies ex. poison dart frog - provided toxicity from beetles and ants) |
| Prey defenses: batesian mimicry | ex. monarch's mimic - viceroy. some predators avoid because it looks like monarch, might actually be toxic now ex. coral and king snakes |
| Prey defenses: Mullerian Mimicry | multiple unpalatable or toxic species resemble or one another - predators learn quickly to avoid certain coloration ex. wasp, bees, caterpillars |
| Prey defenses: Protective Armor | hard outer covering that reduces the number of potential predators that can penetrate the armor ex. armadillos, hedgehogs, turtles, porcupines constitutive - can have behaviors that increase protection |
| Prey defenses: behavioral defense | actions, which can be aggressive or submissive that deters predators- all induced ex. musk oxen (group defense) and prairie dogs/meerkats, hissing cockroach hissing |
| Prey defenses: predator satiation | the timing of reproduction occurs to produce a large number of offspring and to reduce the number of offspring to survive. ex. most r strategists - constitutive - insects and fish |
| Hunting tactics: ambush | lying in wait for a prey to come along; low success, but requires little energy ex. snakes, crocs, lizards, frogs (ectotherms) |
| Hunting tactics: stalking | hiding and waiting for the right time to exhibit a quick attack; search time may be long, but handling time is short ex. cats, herons |
| Hunting tactics: pursuit | chasing after and attacking prey; minimal search time, but long handling time. ex. hawk, wolves, insectavores, bats, cheetah |
| Herbivores prey on plants: | most herbivores don't kill the plant, some do. Ex. gypsy moth, grazers |
| Plant defenses: dermal | hard outer coatings, waxy |
| Plant defenses: toxins | lethal - proricin- ricin A- caster beans, cyanogenic glycocide (cyanide) over 3000 ex. deterrents: caffeine, nicotine, morphine, tannins |
| Plant defenses:animal protection | ants protect acacia tree/gain nutrients and parasitoid wasps |
| Symbiosis | two or more different organisms that live or act in close association to one another |
| Parasitism | one organism benefits while the other is harmed |
| Mutualism | both organisms benefit |
| Commensalism | one organism benefits while the other neither benefits nor is harmed |
| Infection | load of parasites |
| Disease | outcome of infection |
| example of parasitism | malaria caused by Plasmodia |
| Microparasites | small size and short life generation time |
| Macroparasites | large size and long generation time |
| microparasites example | virus, bacteria, protists (most) |
| macroparasites example | tick, leech, worms, fungus, plants |
| ectoparasites | parasites that inhabit the externals parts of the body - hair & skin |
| endoparasites | parasites that inhabit the internal part of the body - can infect cardiovascular, respiratory, muscles, intestine |
| Direct transmission between host organisms | transfers of a parasite from one host to another without an intermediate - ex. cold, flu, smallbox (microparasites) - ex. tick, lice, mites, fleas, roundworms (macroparasites) |
| Indirect transmission between host organisms | is an organism unaffected by a particular parasite that transmits the parasite between two different hosts |
| examples of indirect transmission: | lyme's disease - bact. parasite with tick vector (deer, human, mice, dogs) Borrelia burgdoferi Malaria - protist plasmoidia - mammal/lizard |
| determinate/definitive host | host species in which the parasite matures into an adult |
| intermediate host/vector | host species which harbors the parasite through other developmental stages (i.e. eggs or larvae) |
| example of determinate host | white tailed deer/ meningeal worm through the intermediate host snails/slugs accidentally ingested while grazing. the eggs/larvae are raised in the brain and coughed out to spread virus |
| response to parasitic invasion: behavioral | adjusting behavior to reduce parasitic invasions |
| response to parasitic invasion: systemic inflammatory | internal body defenses Inflammatory response - death or destruction of host cells stimulates the secretion of histamines, which increase blood flow to the site and thus more WBC attack pathogen |
| response to parasitic invasion: Immune response | Immune response - antigens (pathogens) cause WBC to produce antibodies to target antigen |
| Example of behavioral response | to ectoparasites: grooming/preening, going to shaded areas, rolling in mud to endoparasites: cooking/vaccines |
| Parasites decrease host survival | increased risk of predation with infection (rabbits) Vector killifish - parasitized by flukes that cause fish to flop on water surface - host bird then eats them |
| Parasites can reduce host reproduction | western fence lizard clutch sizes are 20% smaller with malaria infection. birds- decreased cerotinoids so reduced color vibrance and reduced mating chance |
| Parasites may regulate host populations | density dependent population regulation examples:(african buffaloes/wildebeasts - viral destruction) (racoons - rabies/distemper) (fox - rabies) (Big horn sheep - lungworms) |
| Mutualism can by symbiotic | two organisms live in close association and the relationship is obigatory |
| obligatory | one or both members of the pair become dependent on the other - required for its survival |
| Mutualism can by nonsymbiotic | the two organisms interact, but do not live in close association with one another |
| Example symbiotic mutualism: | corals provide home for dinoflagellates (zooxanthallae) algae provides carbs and the coral provide protection. w/o algae coral die. crabs eat floating algae surrounding coral which reduces light competition for coral's algae. crabs live in coral |
| tripartite symbiosis | relationship involving three different organisms. |
| Example nonsymbiotic mutualism (facultative) | pollenators (bees, moths, hummingbirds) and frugivores - aid in seed dispersal. not constant. |
| Symbiotic mutualisms are involved in the transfer of nutrients | ruminents (cows) need bacteria/protezoa to convert food into usable nutrients (cows need them for survival) |
| Example of defensive mutualism: | acacia tree/ants and the cleaner fish that eat parasites off other fish - but if there are no parasites, the fish may eat the epidermis of the other fish. |
| Mutualism can influence population dynamics: | 1)inc of species A will inc species B (2)in obligate mutualism, removal of A will decrease species B and vice versa (3) diffuse mutualistic interactions involve more than two species, which complexes population dynamics further |
| Mutualism example: | voles, plants, fungi - voles spread seeds, fungi grow with the roots of the plants and both nutritionally benefit |
| What form of symbiosis does the Red Billed Ox Pecker have? | can be all forms - and it depends on the ecological situation. they will drink the blood of the ungulate if there are no parasites. |
| interspecific competition | a relationship in which the populations of two or more species compete for limited resources |
| exploitation competition and example | there is no direct contact, but individuals can use up the resource such that it adversely affects other individuals (ex. grazing animals like deer/elk) |
| interference competition and example | individuals directly interact to prevent others from occupying a habitat or accessing resources (ex. lions and hyenas) |
| consumption competition and example | individuals of one species inhibit individuals of another species through consumption of shared resources (ex. grazers) |
| preemptive competition and example | occupation of space by one species precludes establisment by other species (ex. birds/squirrels, humans/anything, bivalves(mussels)/clams) |
| overgrowth competition and example | when an organism literally grows over another species inhibiting access to some essential resource (ex. plants, coral, fungi) |
| chemical interaction competition and example | chemical growth inhibitors or toxins are released by one species inhibiting growth or killing another species (ex. black walnut, pheromones(mammals)) |
| territoriality competition and example | behavioral exclusion of others from a specific space that contains a resource (ex. elk/deer, howler/Capuchin monkeys) |
| encounter competition and example | nonterritorial species encounter one another and aggressive behaviors ensue which result in a negative effect on one or both species (ex. lions and hyenas) |
| interspecific competition examples (species 1 or 2 could win) | gray flycatcher/dusky flycatcher Coral reef fish butterflies |
| Acorn woodpeckers are an example of what kind of competition? | territoriality against squirrels and jays |
| what kind of an area does territoriality occur over? | an area that contains more than one resource |
| Niche Overlap | two or more species use a portion of the same resource simultaneously |
| competitor release | remove competitor - expand niche = realized niche |
| adaptation for different food sources can be seen in what species examples? | wild cats of middle east Darwin's finiches' beaks Anolis lizards |
| cleptoparasitism | one animal appropriates food gathered by another (the host) |
| brood parasitism | Cuckoos laying eggs in other bird species' nests for the others to raise as their own. |
| Hemiparasites | photosynthetic plants that contain chlorophyll when mature and obtain water, with its dissolved nutrients by connecting to host xylem - mistletoe |
| Holoparasites | broomrape and dodder - lack chlorophyll and are thus nonphotosynthetic. these plants function as heterotrophs that rely totlally on the host's xylem and phloem for carbon, water and other essential nutrients |
| external parasites of birds | lice, ticks, fleas, botfly larvae and mites |
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