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bio 1010 test 2
test 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| The two major parts of the cell cycle are the “growth phase”,________________, and the “division phase”, called M phase. | called Mitosis |
| During early interphase the chromosomes are long rod-shaped structures called ________________-. | monads |
| After DNA replication occurs each chromosome has two identical ________________. | chromatids |
| DNA replication transforms monad chromosomes into ________________ chromosomes. | dyad |
| M phase transforms DYAD in to _______. | dyad chromosomes into monad chromosomes |
| Interphase includes three parts: | G1, S phase, and G2 |
| M phase includes two parts: | mitosis and Cytokinesis |
| Mitosis includes four parts: (PMAT). | prophase, metaphase, Anaphase, telophase. |
| Plant cells have no ______________, but they do have kinetochores and spindle fibers. | centrioles |
| Parts of the Cell Cycle in the correct order | G1 S G2 Mitosis |
| parts of Mitosis in the correct order by numbering them. | Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase |
| Which of these tissue types does not have a high % of stem cells: skin bone marrow muscle digestive system lining | Muscle |
| Explain the role of growth factors and growth factor receptors in cell cycle control. | The signal is produced when a growth factor from the cell’s external environment binds to a membrane-bound protein called a growth-factor receptor |
| _____ are small proteins whose functions involve the regulation of cell growth, cell proliferation, differentiation, as well as control over metabolic processes. | Growth factors |
| Explain the role of cytoplasmic signaling in cell cycle control. | The internal portion of the receptor passes a signal on to one or more cytoplasmic proteins in order to activate one or more signaling cascade pathways in the cytoplasm. |
| What is the function of the part of the growth factor receptor protein on the outside of the plasma membrane? | transmembrane receptors r specialized membrane proteins that take part in communication between the cell and outside world. Extracellular signaling molecules attach to the receptor, triggering changes in the function of the cell. |
| What is the function of the part of the growth factor receptor protein on the inside of the plasma membrane? | The intracellular or cytoplasmic domain interacts with the interior of the cell/ organelle, relaying the signal. |
| There are two fundamentally different ways for this interaction: | The intracellular domain communicates via specific protein-protein-interactions with effector proteins, which in turn send the signal along a signal chain to its destination. |
| Extracellular signaling molecules (usually hormones, neurotransmitters, cytokines, growth factors or cell recognition molecules) attach to the receptor, triggering changes in the function of the cell. | This process is called signal transduction |
| What does mutation have to do with cancer? | A mutation may cause a cell to produce and abnormal protein that acts as a growth factor |
| Define Benign | Benign tumors consist of cells that divide more often than required for normal growth or replacement of dead cells. But other than that the cells are normal. Benign tumors are usually harmless. |
| Define Malignant | Malignant tumors consist of cells that divide more often than required, and those cells are also abnormal. They have lost their purpose. The cells in malignant tumors have multiple mutations that affect the control of the cell cycle. |
| 3 things about maligant tumors | 1. Malignant tumors tend to grow much more rapidly than benign tumors. 2. Malignant tumors crowd the cells of surrounding normal tissue and rob them of nutrients. 3. The cells of some malignant tumors can spread to other areas via the blood to start new |
| Metastasis: Cells from malignant tumors may ecome metastatic. Explain what that means | They break away from the tumor, enter the circulatory system and travel to other organs or other parts of the body to cause tumor formation there. Metastatic cancers are much more serious than non-metastatic cancers. |
| A male gamete is called a (an) ________________. | Sperm |
| A female gamete is called a(an)________________ . | Ova (Ovum) |
| A male gonad is called a(an)________________ . | testis |
| A female gonad is called a(an)________________ | ovary |
| The process of Fertilization combines a male and a female gamete to form a ___________ . | zygote |
| A zygote undergoes rapid ______ to produce a (an)embryo. | mitosis |
| ___________ are like Stem cells. They have the ability to keep dividing. They are capable of producing gametes. They are located in the gonads. | Germ cells |
| Body cells that are not germ cells are called _______________. They eventually die. They are not capable of producing gametes | Somatic cells |
| In basal cell carcinoma the cancer mutation occurred in germ cells or somatic cells | somatic cells |
| In BCNS the cancer mutation occurred in (germ cells or somatic cells)? | germ cells |
| You have ____ chromosomes in each of your somatic cells | 46 |
| A cell with paired chromosomes has a (haploid or diploid?) number of chromosomes. | 46 for diploid(full set). 23 for haploid(half set) cells with haploid number are sex cells because they need only have to fuse with another sex cell to make a zygote(to a fetus). |
| You have ___ pairs of chromosomes in each of your somatic cells; 22 pairs of 1 and one pair of sex chromosomes. | 23 haploid(23) + haploid(23)=Diploid(46). Somatic cells in humans contain 46 chromosomes, and they are all diploid. Human gametes are haploid, and contain 23 chromosomes |
| Paired chromosomes are called Homologous chromosomes because _______ | they are similar in size, shape and gene order. Sex chromosomes are the exception. One member of each of your chromosome pairs was derived from your mother and the other from your father. |
| Fertilization converts two (haploid or diploid?) gametes into one (haploid or diploid?) zygote | Fertilization converts two haploid gametes into one diploid zygote. |
| The type of cell division that converts a diploid germ cell into a haploid gamete is --------- | Meiosis I |
| Mi for Mitosis or Me for Meiosis. Starts with a diploid somatic cell and ends with diploid somatic cells. | MI |
| Mi for Mitosis or Me for Meiosis Starts with a diploid germ cell and ends with haploid gamete cells.MI | MI |
| Mi for Mitosis or Me for Meiosis. Produces 2 daughter cells MI | MI |
| Mi for Mitosis or Me for Meiosis. Produces 4 daughter cells ME | ME |
| Mi for Mitosis or Me for Meiosis. Produces daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell. | MI |
| Mi for Mitosis or Me for Meiosis. Produces daughter cells that are NOT genetically identical to the parent cell. | ME |
| During interphase I before meiosis I begins in a diploid germ cell, DNA replication occurs to create homologous pairs of _____ chromosomes from homologous pairs of monad chromosomes. | monad |
| During interphase II before meiosis II begins the DNA _________ replicate. | During interphase II before meiosis II begins the DNA does NOT replicate. |
| Crossing-over is one reason why one person’s gametes are not genetically identical to each other. It occurs during alignment of chromosomes in (meiosis I or meiosis II) | meiosis I |
| During _____ (meiosis I or meiosis II) homologous pairs of dyad chromosomes align and separate, so unpaired dyad chromosomes enter separate daughter cells. | meiosis I |
| During _____ (meiosis I or meiosis II) the chromatids of unpaired dyad chromosomes align and separate (become monad chromosomes) and enter separate daughter cells. | meiosis II |
| In both ______ (mitosis, meiosis I or meiosis II) and _____ (mitosis, meiosis I or meiosis II) the chromatids of unpaired dyad chromosomes separate (become monad chromosomes) and enter separate daughter cells. | mitosis and meiosis II |
| Independent assortment is another reason why the gametes produced by a person are not genetically identical. It occurs during ____ (meiosis I, meiosis II or both meiosis I and meiosis II?) | both meiosis I and meiosis II?) It is dependent on the way the chromosomes align. The more chromosomes an organism has, the greater the number of possible alignment patterns. |
| When a bacterium takes in the DNA of another bacterium the process is called: | Transformation. |
| What two scientists used that technique early in the quest to determine the identity of the substance responsible for inheritance? | Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase |
| A bacteriophage injects its ____to infect it | DNA |
| During infection of a bacterium by a bacteriophage, the _____ of the bacteriophage stays outside of the bacterial cell. | Protein |
| Before beginning their experiments, Hershey and Chase knew about an important chemical difference between proteins and nucleic acids. | Proteins contain the element, Sulphur, while nucleic acids do not. And nucleic acids contain the element, phosphorus, while proteins do not. |
| Hershey and Chase found that during infection by a bacteriophage that have incorporated radioactive sulfur and phosphorus, only _________________entered the infected bacteria. | only radioactive phosphorus |
| The ______________ images of DNA made by Rosalind Franklin were key to the discovery of the structure of DNA. | xray diffraction |
| What two scientists won the Nobel Prize for being the first to publish the structure of DNA? | James Watson and Francis Crick |
| The scientific name for the “twisted ladder” shape of DNA is a _______________. | double helix |
| The sides of the DNA ladder are made of alternating _________and___________. | sugar and phosphate groups |
| Each rung of the DNA ladder is composed of a pair of ________________________. | nitrogenous bases |
| Name the three types of RNA. | 1.Messenger RNA – mRNA 2.Transfer RNA – tRNA 3.Ribosomal RNA – rRNA |
| nitrogenous bases are bonded to (sugar or phosphate?) groups. | phosphate |
| DNA is composed of a series of smaller molecules called nucleotides. In turn, each nucleotide is itself made up of three primary components: | a nitrogen-containing region known as a nitrogenous base, a carbon-based sugar molecule called deoxyribose, and a phosphorus-containing region known as a phosphate group attached to the sugar molecule |
| The sugars and phosphates in the sides of the ladder are held together by _________ (what kind?) bonds. | covalent hydrogen bonds |
| The bases in the rungs of the ladder are held together by ___________ bonds. | noncovalent |
| f. The term “antiparallel” refers to the orientation of the (which of the three components of the nucleotides?) on opposite strands of a DNA molecule. | Sugars |
| DNA or RNA or “BOTH Double stranded molecule | DNA |
| DNA or RNA or “BOTH Contains the sugar, ribose | RNA |
| DNA or RNA or “BOTH Contains phosphate groups | BOTH |
| DNA or RNA or “BOTH Contains the bases: U, A, C, G | RNA |
| DNA or RNA or “BOTH Is found only in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. | DNA |
| R (DNA replication) or T (Transcription) All genes are involved in the event | R |
| R (DNA replication) or T (Transcription) Occurs throughout the cell cycle | R |
| R (DNA replication) or T (Transcription) Requires DNA polymerase enzyme | T |
| R (DNA replication) or T (Transcription) Requires Uracil nucleotides | T |
| R (DNA replication) or T (Transcription) Just one strand of DNA is involved AND SEMI-CONSERTIVE | R |
| Which type RNA found in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm? | mRNA |
| In which RNA type is a codon found? | A sequence of three adjacent bases (triplet) on mRNA |
| Which RNA type binds to an amino acid? | Each tRNA molecule picks up an amino acid from the cytoplasm. —tRNA aligns the amino acid on the ribosome in the location specified by mRNA. |
| In which RNA type is an anticodon found? | A sequence of three adjacent bases (triplet) in the tRNA that is complementary to the codon in the mRNA. |
| Name two mutagens. | Mutagen is an agent that causes an increase in the frequency or rate of mutation. There are three types of mutagens. They are physical, chemical, and biological. |
| A mutagen is anything that changes the genetic material of an organism. The most common examples are X-Rays ( or just about any kind of radiation ), and UV light. A few less common ones are: | ethidium bromide, and bromine. Radioactive waves (Gamma rays, alpha and beta particles) Ultra-violet (UV) waves Many metals such as arsenic, cadmium, chromium and nickel |
| Define the term genome. | the genome is the entirety of an organism's hereditary information. It is encoded either in DNA or, for many types of viruses, in RNA.[1] The genome includes both the genes and the non-coding sequences of the DNA/RNA |
| What reaction does a ligase enzyme catalyze? | catalyzes the linkage between two free ends of double-stranded DNA chains by forming a phosphodiester bond between them, as in the repair of damaged DNA. |
| A____________ __________ enzyme catalyzes a reaction that breaks a sugar-phosphate bond between nucleotides. Such enzymes are “restricted” to breaking a bond within the area of a specific DNA helix sequence. | restriction endonuclease enzyme |
| If the DNA of an individual is cut with a restriction endonuclease, the fragments of DNA produced can be separated by a technique called ____ ___________to produce a “DNA fingerprint “, a pattern of bands that is completely unique to that individual. | gel electrophoresis |
| Are all of the genes in the genome of an organism expressed in every cell? Explain. | Only the genes that are appropriate for the function of that cell or organism are chosen to be expressed. |
| Gene expression can be regulated through the rate of ____________ or translation activation or repression. | transcription |
| When a bacterium picks up DNA from its surroundings, the process is called _____. | transformation |
| The bases in a DNA molecule are covalently bonded to the _____ groups in the sides of the ladder. | Sugars |
| An enzyme that cuts DNA at a specific sequence of bases is called a restriction _____ | endonuclease |
| Give an example of a GMO you learned about in this module. | The GMO in that case is a bacterium. Corn that is insect resistant |
| Which of the following describes a method for regulating gene expression that involves a mechanism operating outside of the cell. | Correct One of the cell's genes cannot be transcribed unless thyroid hormone molecules are bound to certain receptors on the plasma membrane of the cell. |
| Watson and Crick won a _____ Prize for describing the structure of DNA. | Noble |
| a small circular DNA structure often found in bacteria and used as a vector for genetic engineering is a _____. | Plasmid |
| True or fALSE...The set of genes expressed by a brain cell is the same as the set of genes expressed by a liver cell. | False |
| List the three parts of interphase in order of their occurence | G1 S G2 |
| What phase? chromosomes align at the center of the cell. | Metaphase |
| What phase? The nuclear envelope is intact and individual chromosomes are not visible | prophase |
| What phase? Chromosomes appear "v" shaped as they are pulled to the poles of the cell. | anaphase |
| What phase? Two dark mounds of chromosome material are present near the poles of the cell. | telophase |
| True or False...The mutated genes of basal cell carcinoma are located only in skin cells of the epidermis. | True |
| True or False: Metastatic cancers are less harmful than non-metastatic cancers. | False |
| Body cells that are not germ cells are called _____ cells. | somatic |
| True or False: Human female gametes have one Y chromosome. | False, have 2 XX |
| Each sister chromatid of chromosome during G2 contains _____. | one DNA double helix |
| In animal cells spindle fibers are formed by cell structures called _____. | centrioles |
| Which of forms of electromagnetic radiation is NOT capable of damaging DNA? | visible rays |
| The daughter cells of meiosis I have _____ chromosomes. | unpaired dyad |
| All organisms consist of cells and arise from_________ | Pre-exsisiting cells |
| _______ is the process by which new cells are generated. | Mitosis |
| Meiosis is the process by which gametes are generatred for ____________ | Reproduction |
| DNA replication (s phase) must come before mitosis so that daughter cells recieve the same ____________ of ________ as the parent cells | complement of chromosomes |
| The gap phases seperate mitosis from the S phase. Thi sis the time when signals mediate the switch in ___________ __________ | cellular activity |
| Mitosis involves the seperation of ________ _________ into seperate cells | copied chromosomes |
| What is the basic unit of heredity | Gene |
| What is hte total heredity endowment of DNA called | Genome |
| ______________ cells are all body cells except reporidcutive cells | Somatic |
| Gamete is a _____________ cel | reproductive |
| What is a elogated cellular structure composed of DNA and protein | Chromosome |
| Diploid is | a cellular condition where chromosome is represented by 2 homologous chromosomes (46) |
| Haploid is | a cellular condition where chromosome is represented by only one homologous chromosomes (23) |
| Chromatid is one of two duplicated chromosomes that are connected at the ______ | centromere |
| Region of the chromosome where microtubwa attach during mitosis and meiosis | centromere |
| A Chromosome is composed of __________ and ________ | DNA and Protein |
| Duplicated chromosomes are connected by a ____________ | Centromere |
| During Prophase II centrioles form and move toward the _________ | poles (nuclear membranes dissolve) |
| During Metaphase II sister chromatids line up along the the __________ | cell equator |
| Nondisjunctiona occur when homologous chromosomes fail to seperate during meiosis I or when _______________ fail to seperate during Meiosis II. This is called polyploidy. | chromatids |
| organisms with an odd number of chromosome sets cannot produce viable gametes. True or False | True |
| What divides cytoplasm? | Cytokinesis |
| Cytokinesis is different in plants because plants have _____________ | cell walls. |
| Mitotic spindles help chromosomes to __________ | move |
| Spindle fibers are made of __________________ | |
| Spindles Shorten or lengthen during anaphase | shorten |
| a _________________ is the engine that drives the chromosome movement | Kinetochore motor |
| A critical control point in the cell cycle where stop and go signals happens is a __________ | checkpoint |
| What ar ethe 3 major check points | G1. G2 and M phases |
| What doe sthe G1 checkpoint ensure | that the cell is large enough to divide and has enopugh nutrients support the resulting daughter cells |
| What is the nondividing state of cells called | G0 |
| What does the G2 checkpoint ensure | that DNA replication in the S Phase has occured |
| the M Phase (metaphase)checkpoint ensures that all of the chromosomes are attached to the ________ by a _________ | Mitotic spindle by a kinetochore |
| What protein activates or deactivates anpother protein by phosphrylating them | Kinase |
| What is the function of Kinase | to activate and deactivate the checkpoints. Cyclin activates kinase |
| What is an alternate form fo of the same gene called? | allele |
| What is genotype | genetic make up of an organism |
| what is phenotype | the expressed trait of an organism |
| Meiosis ______________ chromosome numbers by 1/2 | divides |
| Because Meiosis reduces chromosome numbers by 1/2, _____________ what can occur | sexual recombination |
| Meiosis of diploid cells produces haploid daughter cells. Haploid cells can function as ______ | gametes |
| Meiosis and fertilation introduce genetic variationis 3 ways | 1. crossing over 2. independent assortment 3. random chance fertilization |
| Mitosis is related to 1) Asexual reproduction 2) growth repair and 3)production of most _________ | Cancers |
| The type of cell division required for sexual reproduction and inheritance | Meiosis |
| What are organs that make gametes called | Gonads |
| what is a stem cell located in a gonad called | Germ cells |
| germ cells can differentiate (mature) in to _____ | gametes |
| Fusion of gametes allows for germs cells to live on in another individual. true or False | True |
| Type of cell that cannot form gametes | Somatic |
| In BCNS the mutuated gene is found in every body cell, including the germ cells. How can the mutated gene be passed on? | Through Ovum or Sperm |
| In Basel Cell carcinoma, the mutated gene is present? | only in the tumor cells of the the skin and cannot be passed on to offspring |
| Cell division that 1/2s the chromosome number | Meiosis |
| Replication is called semi-conservative, because why? | one half of the original strand is always saved, or "conserved" |
| Replication Errors – can cause a | genetic MUTATION |
| _______________by the polymerase prevents mismatches | Proofreading |
| 1850s: ___________ determined that “heredity factors” were responsible for the physical, chemical, and functional characteristics in an organism | Gregor Mendel |
| It is the transfer of an inherited trait (like the ability to cause disease) from bacteria to bacteria by the transfer of DNA. This process is responsible for the transference of resistance to antibiotics from one bacterium to another. | transformation |
| a nucleotide has three parts: | A sugar A phosphate A nitrogenous base |
| DNA nucleotides each contain one of four bases: | Thymine (T) Adenine (A) Cytosine (C) Guanine (G) |
| The two bases in each rung of the DNA ladder are held together by ___________________ . | hydrogen bonds |
| The sides of ladder are held together by ____________bonds between phosphate and sugar groups. | covalent |
| The sequence of bases on one DNA strand is ______________ to the base sequence on the other DNA strand | complementary |
| Before a cell can divide, the DNA of the cell must be replicated (copied), so that the new cell will have ________________ . | its own genetic material |
| DNA replication has three steps that occur over and over again until the molecule is completely replicated. | Strand separation Base pairing Strand joining |
| The enzyme that catalyzes DNA replication is called ________________________ . | DNA polymerase |
| DNA polymerase is the enzyme that catalyzes the covalent bonding of sugar and phosphate groups in the new aligned nucleotides on the new side of the ladder. True or False | True |
| DNA to RNA is called... | Transcription Enzymes use the DNA sequence of a gene as a pattern for an mRNA molecule. |
| RNA nucleotides are very similar to DNA nucleotides with two exceptions: | 1) There is no Thymine (T) base in RNA. RNA has Uracil (U) instead. Uracil pairs with Adenine. 2. DNA contains the sugar, deoxyribose. In RNA the sugar is ribose. |
| mRNA to protein is called: | Translation |
| The mRNA codes for a specific sequence of amino acids which make up a _________ _________ | polypeptide chain |
| Carries genetic information from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm. mRNA directs protein synthesis. _________ yields synthesis of protein | mRNA |
| Ribosomes are composed of __________ and ________ | protein and rRNA |
| The pairing of codon with anticodon is the key to producing the correct sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis. True or False | True |
| There are ____ different amino acids | 20 |
| Phe= | phenylalanine |
| LEU= | Leu=leucine |
| Met= | Met=methionine |
| Ser= | Ser=serine |
| ______ is the start codon. It codes for Met=methionine. | AUG |
| Genetic Code is Universal means... | Almost all organisms use the same genetic code. Human cells “speak the same message” as bacterial cells |
| Stages in translation | 1. Initiation 2. Elongation 3. Termination |
| A change in the base sequence of an organism’s DNA is a ___________ . | mutation |
| ___________________ affect large regions of the chromosome or entire chromosomes Alter many genes | Chromosomal mutations |
| __________are chemicals or radiation or viruses that cause changes in DNA. Examples: UV, xray, gamma ray radiation Chemicals in cigarette smoke Human papilloma virus-(HPV causes cervical cancer) | Mutagens |
| The study of genomes is called ____________ . | genomics |
| GMO (genetically modified organism) also known as a ____________ ______________. | transgenic organism |
| Recombinant DNA Technology is known as __________ . | “genetic engineering” |
| Restriction endonucleases are __________ sequence regions | enzymes that cut DNA at specific base |
| ______________-an enzyme that glues the cut ends of DNA fragments together. | Ligase enzyme |
| ____________viruses or bacterial plasmids used to carry DNA from one species into the cells of another species. | Vectors |
| This process is useful in many ways. Determining the paternity of a child. Crime scene investigations Exonerating wrongly convicted prisoners. Determining similarities between the DNA of different species (even extinct species). | DNA Fingerprinting |
| What phase: -Chromosomes condense and become visible -Mitotic spindle fibers (made from microtubules) form from the centrioles at the poles of the cell. Nuclear envelope disappears. | Prophase (animal cells) |
| What phase: -Chromosomes attach to spindle fibers near their centromeres by way of protein kinetochores. | Prophase (animal cells) |
| What phase: Spindle microtubules align the chromosomes in the middle of the spindle (middle of the cell). | Metaphase |
| What phase: Centromeres split Spindle microtubules separate the chromatids (now called chromosomes) and pull them towards opposite poles of the cell. | Anaphase |
| What phase: Chromosomes arrive at the opposite poles of the cell Nuclear envelope reappears Spindle dissolves M phase continues with cytokinesis | Telophase |
| Cells with the ability to continue to divide are called ____________________ | stem cells |
| ____________% stem cells: skin, digestive tract lining, bone marrow, gonads (ovaries and testes). | High |
| ________% stem cells: skeletal muscle, brain, spinal cord, heart muscle | Low |
| ___________________is used to kill cancer cells. Unfortunately radiation treatments kill normal cells in the area of the tumor as well. | High energy radiation |
| Most chemo drugs target and kill _________ _________ __________ Chemo kills tumor cells and also healthy rapid-dividing cells in tissues such as skin, digestive tract lining, bone marrow, ovaries and testis. | rapidly-dividing cells. |
| Homologous chromosome pairs separate Two haploid daughter cells are formed. This is called .... | Separation |
| _____________________– the genes in parental chromosomes are “shuffled” Explains why siblings are NOT identical Explains the tremendous genetic diversity among individuals | Genetic recombination |
| There are two sources of genetic variation that occur during meiosis. They r | 1.Crossing-over occurs during alignment in Meiosis I 2. Independent assortment of chromosomes into daughter cells during both Meiosis I and Meiosis II. |
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