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Vert morph exam 1
phylogeny, histology
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Phylum Chordata | consists of craniates and protochordates |
| Phylum Chordata: craniates | clade craniata, includes vertabrate, don't always have vertabrate though, ie. hag fish |
| Phylum Chordata: protochordates | nonmonophyletic (don't form a clade), are a grade instead, comprised of tunicates(urochordata, sea squirts) and lancelets (cephalochordata) |
| clade | a group of organisms evolved from a common ancestor |
| non exclusive (found in chordates but also found in other organism) chordate characteristics | eukaryotic, triploblastic (3 primary germ layers- ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm), eucoelomate (having a mesoderm lined body cavity), metameric (segmented structure), pharyngeal pouches (holes in throat, few clades have this,only chordates and hemichordata) |
| exclusive (found only in chordates) chordate characteristics | dorsal hollow nerver chord (nerve chord located in back and is hollow), notochord (induces ectoderm to form dorsal hollow nerver chord), subpharyngeal gland (embryonic outgrowth of throat, has two forms: endostyle or thyroid) |
| endostyle | similar position and development to thyroid, similar chemical products containing iodine. eurochordates, cephalochordates and larval lampreys have endostyle, exocrine |
| thyroid, | similar development and position as endostyle, similar chemical product iodine, craniates have thyroids except for the larval lampre, endocrine |
| Richard Owen | 1843, defined homology as the same organ in every variety of function, basically they are related in some way, shape or form. ENDOSTYLE AND THYROID ARE HOMOLOGS |
| generalized chordates structure | buccal cavity(oral cavity), gut, caudal region (tail region), pharyngeal arches (skeletal elements in the throat that support the wall of the throat), pharyngeal (gill) slits (in between the arches) |
| chordate anus | subterminal, most other animals, anus is the terminal, the end, the tail. in chordates, it is before the end, they have an extension after the anus that is a tail |
| Types of Chordates: protochordates- urochordata(tunicate) | larva resemble a general chordate, adults do not, they are sessile, missing dorsal hollow nerve chord and notochord. adults have a tunic made of cellulose |
| Types of Chordates: protochordates- cephalochordata (lancelet) | characteristics that link them to craniates but exculde them from urochordata: distinct anterior and posterior ends, including postanal tail, myomeres (segemented axial musculature) and blood flows forward ventrally and caudad dorsally (weird blood flow) |
| Types of Chordates: craniates || lower case and "" = not a clade, uppper case and no "" = clade | traditionally divided into 8 classes: "agnatha"(jawless fish), "placodermi"(plate skin), Chondrichthyes (cartilagenous fish, ie. sharks and rays), "osteoichtyes"(bony fish), "amphibia"(transition between water and land, salamandars, frogs) |
| Types of Chordates: craniates || lower case and "" = not a clade, uppper case and no "" = clade | "reptilia"(reptiles), Aves(birds), Mammilia(US!!) |
| Craniata | split into hagfish (have no vertabrae) and vertabrates. all craniates have characteristics of chordata in modivided or unmodified forms. They also have characteristics that link them to cephalochordates and characteristics exclusive to them |
| ectodermal placodes | invagination of ectoderm to mesoderm, plate like ,there are two kidns of placodes: neurogenic (gives rise to neurons) lens placodes (lens of eyes). Also known as sensory placodes, associated w senses, formed by invagination of ectoderm into mesoderm |
| olfactory placode (rostral placode) | smell |
| optic placode (lens placode) | vision, the only non neurogenic placode, ie. does nto give rise to neurons |
| otic placode | hearing and balance |
| lateral lines (in fishes and larval amphibians) | pressure sensing |
| gustatory placode | neurons of taste buds |
| tripartite brain | expansion of the anterior end of dorsal hollow nerve chord, the rest of the dorsal hollow nerve chord becomes the spinal chord |
| tripartite brain: forebrain | associated with sense of smell (rostral) |
| tripartite brain: midbrain | associated w optic, sense of vision |
| tripartite brain: hind brain | associated with otic, sense of hearing and balance |
| Neural crest | embryonic tissue, unique, comes from the ectoderm along developing notochord, can become many different strictures, ie. nerve ganglia, pigmented cells, dentine, pharyngeal skeleton, adrenal medulla etc, example of stem cells |
| bone | hard tissue made of hydroxyapatite (calcium phosphate) around a mesh of collagen fibers. bones are biphasic, ie. has two material phases. cartliagenous fish used to have bone but have modified to NOT have them |
| brain case | protective case of cartilage/bone/both around brain |
| cephalized | anterior of the animal is highly elaborate, ie. ectodermal placodes, lateral line placodes, tripartite brians, CRANIATES ARE CEPHALIZED |
| origin of the chordates | pharyngeal slits, onlyy two groups have thes, the chordages and the hemicordates |
| hemichordates | acorn worms, type of marine worm, more like echinoderms than chordates but they have pharyngeal slits |
| protostomes | spiral embryonic cleavage, ie. 4 initial cells, not directly on top of each other, ectoderm formed by cavitation. not a clade, blastospore becomes mouth, coelem forms from mesoderm through cavitation. larva is looped and ciliated band basent |
| deuterostomes | each cell is on top of the last set of cells, ectoderm formed by invagination, blastospore becomes anus, coelem forms from mesoderm pinched off of the primitive gut. larva looped and ciliated band present |
| fossil froms: calcichordates | look kind of like echinoderms, the story is still unclear though |
| Pikaia | probably part of somitochordata, have myomeres and a notochord, provides evidence that somitochordata existed 530 mya. clearly not a cephalochordate or craniate, probably a sister group of cephalocordate and craniates |
| ghost lineage | we have no evidence btut its a logical leap that the lineage went in this direction. pikaia identifies several ghost lineages |
| systematics | the study of nature and causes of organismal diversity |
| taxonomy | the science of naming and classifying groups of organisms, taxonomy identifies organisms that are clades, not grades |
| geological time: absolute time | measured in years, using radiometric dating |
| geological time: relative time | relative occurence of events through time, no exact dates but we understand the basic sequence |
| 5 ways to assign relative ages: these independent methods all yield the same relative times | comparison of absolute times, stratigraphic dating (layering of sediment), index fossils, geomorphology(using shape of geological landscape to date items), fission track training (take sections of rock and observe grooves left by radioactive isotopes |
| THE FOSSIL RECORD | preserved remain or trace of prehistoric life |
| Main modes of fossilization | in sediment, w/wo petrification (replacement of tissue with rock), in sediment as impressions or carbon films |
| other modes of fossiliazation | in peat or tar, in amber, by freezing, by drying, ie. flightless birds in hawaii and lava tunnels |
| limitations of the fossil record | bias: some organisms, like marine animals, are more likely to be preserved than terrestrial. Incompleteness: fossils are undiscovered/destroyed by geological process, decay and scavenging, causing gaps in fossil record |
| lessons learned from fossil record | different groups appear at different times, a historical sequence of ecosystems is revealed, fossil sequences show evolutionary transformation |
| goals in evoltuionary morphology | identify the evolutionary changes in form and attendant function, order these changes in a relative time line, ie. a phylogeny , specify modifications of development that are responsible for the origin of novel morphologies |
| evolutionary patterns | phylogeny: branching patterns that have yielded a group's diversity |
| homoplasy | non homologous similarity, no homologous similarities, hinder distinguishing phylogenies |
| How to get at phylogeny | cladistic analysis |
| cladistic analysis | ancestral state: earlier form of an organism. derived state: new, modified form of an organism, bc derived state evolved later, taxa that share a derived state must have a more common ancestor w each other than w other organisms, |
| cladistic analysis cont. | can use the charing of derived states between species to define clades |
| 0 | ancestral state |
| 1 | derived state |
| what do the 0 and 1 mean | the characters provide evidence for clade membership, helps you make phylogenic trees |
| clade | consisits of common ancestor, all of its descendeants and only those descendants |
| what are the three ways to draw a phylogenic tree | you can make a tree, you can do a rectangle, you can make a venn diagram and you can actually draw paranthesis as well |
| what about the sequence at the top ofa phylogenetic tree | sequence is meaningless, doesn't matter what order everything is in, what matters is how it branches |
| audapamorphy | opposite of synapomory, derivded state that does nto help us group the terminal taxa |
| 8 traditional classes: "agnatha" | jawless fish |
| 8 traditional classes: "placodermi" | plate skin |
| 8 traditional classes: Chondrichthyes | cartilagenous fish |
| 8 traditional classes: "osteoichtyes" | bony fish |
| 8 traditional classes: "ambibia" | amphibians |
| 8 traditional classes: "reptilia" | reptiles |
| 8 traditional classes: Aves | birds |
| 8 traditional classes: Mammalia | US! |
| evolutionary novelties | shared qualities |
| 5 characteristics that define craniata | ectodermal placode, neural crest, tripartite brain, brain case, bone |
| homoplasy | nonhomologous similarity, similarity independent of common ancestor |
| tree length | defined by the number of inferred changes, ie. count the number of boxes |
| ad hoc hypothesis | hypothesis where we have no direct evidence to support it |
| parsoimony | simplest explanation |
| how do you know which state is derived | you need to know directionality |
| out group analysis | outgroup is the group not of interest |
| ingroup | group of interest |
| phylogenetic bush | know that they're related, that they have a common ancestor, but don't know how each step happened so they all come bursting out of the common ancestor, like a bush |
| b->a | used A and B because the number's not important |
| symplesiomorphy | shared ancestral trait, not shared derived trait, used to describe a grade, not a clade. synapamorphy, on the other hand, is a shared derived state |
| paired fins | a synapamorphy within craniata, paired appendages being derived, no paired appendages being ancestral |
| gnathostomata | paired fins defines these within clade craniata and is derived. However, WITHIN gnathostomata, paired fins is ancestral, paired appendages would be derived |
| origin of craniata | probably associated with origin of neural crest and ectodermal placode |
| hagfishes | myxiniformes |
| lampreys | petromyzontiformes |
| cartilaginous fish | chondrichthyes |
| ray-finned fish | actinopterygii |
| coelacanths | Actinistia |
| lungfishes | dipnoi |
| caecilians, salamandars and frogs | lissamphibia |
| turtles | testudines |
| Tuatara and squamates (snakes) | lepicosauria |
| crocodilians | |
| tree length | = number of inferred changes, ie. count the number of boxes |
| ad hoc hypotehsis | hypothesis for wich there is no direct evidence |
| parsimony | simplest explanation |
| how do you know which state is derived? | you need to know directionality |
| outgroup analysis | group that is not of itnerest |
| ingroup analysis | group of interest |
| phylogenetic bush | all we know is that the ingroups have the same common ancestor, don't know exactly how though so they all come bursting out of the same ancestor |
| symplesiomorphy | shared ancestral character, used to describe grades not clades |
| paired fins | withing craniate is a synapamorphy, paired appendages is derived, no paired appendages is ancestral. |
| gnathostomata | within a larger clade, craniata, piared fins is derived and defines Gnathostomata. however, withing gnathostomata, paired fins is ancestral |
| hagfishes | myxiniformes |
| lampreys | petromyzontiformes |
| cartilaginous fish | chondrichthyes |
| ray-finned fishe | actinopterygii |
| coelacanths | actinistia |
| lungfishes | dipnoi |
| caecilians, salamanders and frogs | lissamphibia |
| turtles | testudines |
| tuatara and squamates(snakes) | lepidosauria |
| crocodilians | crocodilia |
| birds | aves |
| platypus and echidnas | monotremata |
| oppusums and kangaroos | metatheria |
| placental mammals | eutheria |
| Craniata | chordates that have the specific synapamorphies of neural crest, ectodermal placodes, tripartite brains, bones, and skull casing |
| Vertebrata | craniates that have vertabrate, excluding hagfish |
| Gnathastomata | vertabrata with paired appendages, excludes hagfish and lampreys |
| Osteoichtyes | gnathastomes that have lungs, excludes hagfish, lampreys, cartilagenous fish |
| Sarcopterygii | osteoichtyans that have lobed fins/limbs, excludes hagfish, lampreys, cartilagenous fish and ray finned fish |
| rhipidistia | sarcopterygians that have internal nares, lungfishes and all tetrapoda |
| tetrapoda | rhipidistians that ahve limbs |
| amniota | tetrapods that have an amnion, excludes amphibians |
| sauropsida | amniotes that ahve a single central ankle bone, turtles, snakes, crocodiles, birds |
| diapsida | sauropsids that have two temporal fenestrae, snake, bird, crocodile |
| archosauria | diapsids that have serrated teeth, crocodiles, birds |
| mammalia | amniotes that have hair, platypus, kangaroos, placental mammals |
| theria | mammals that have a placenta, marsupial mammals and placental mammals |
| histology | study of anatomy at the tissue level of organization, heierarchical structure |
| tissues | an assemblage of cellular and fibrous elements, in which one particular type of cell or fiber predominates, organized ot form material basis of on e of the functional systems of the body |
| kinds of tissues | epithelia, connective tissue, supporting tissue, blood and related tissues, muscle, nervous tissue |
| epithelia | sheetlike tissue, covers free surfaces,lines, ducts, sacs or tubes, attached to a basement membrane |
| types of epithelia described according to stratification | simple: one layer of cells. stratified: more than one layer of cells. psuedostratified: all cells attached to the basement membrane but only some reach the free surface. transitional: specialized form, lines urinary bladder, capable of great distension |
| types of epithelia described according to cell shape | squamous: cells are flat, wider than taller. cuboidal: cells are cube shaped. columnar: cells are column like, taller than wide |
| types of epithelia described according to specialization | glandular: secretes products. Ciliated: cells at free surface ahve cilia. sensory: associated with sensory neurons. Cornified: impregnated with keratin. Absorptive: capable of taking up material from lumen |
| how are epithelia described | with a combination of these different terms, ie. human epidermis is squamous, stratified, cornified epithelieum |
| glands | organs that secrete products, are derived from epithelia. form from invagination. |
| "derived" | when describing glands means tht they come in a developmental sense |
| One way to describe glands: endocrine vs exocrine | endocrine: secretes products directly into blood strea, ie. thyroid, adrenal. ductlesss, no connection to free surface | exocrine: secrete products through a duct to free surface ie. pancreas, liver. duct=pat of invagination |
| 2nd way to describe glands: unicellular vs multicellular | unicellular exocrine glands do not have ducts, they secrete by exocytosis |
| Hyracotherium | extinct horse, the ancestor of all horces |
| general progression of hyracotherium | radius fuses into ulna and leading to enhanced forearm strength. Fibula fuses into tibia leading to increased shin strength. middle toe gets longer and becomes bigger, other toes become vestigial. |
| general progression of hyracotherium | teeth go from low crowned to high crowned and cusps to ridges, premolar->molar. skull also gets larger to accommodate the increased tooth size. reduction in tooth number increased brain size as well |
| evolving lineage | lineage experiencing change through accumulation of heritable modifications |
| anagenesis | change in a single lineage |
| cladogenesis | lineage splitting, leads to formation of monophyletic groups |
| congergence/convergent evolution | two distinct lineages that come together and become superficially similar through adaptation in similar conditions |
| extinction | lineage dies out |
| parallel evolution | closely related groups, evolve along similar, nonhomologous |
| eons | precambrian (longest, 4500-590), phanerozoic (590-0) |
| eras | paleozoic (age of fish, 590-250), mesozoic (age of reptiles, 250-65), cenozoic (age of mammals65-0) |
| periods (COSDCP) | cambrian (pikaia), ordovician, silurian, devonian, carboniferous, permian|| triassic, jurrasic, cretaceous || tertiary, quaternary |
| homologous | evolved from the same precursor, from the most recent common ancestor in the taxa |
| neural crest | stem cells, in the ectoderm along the nerve chord |
| determining synapamorphy vs symplesiomorphy | depends on what kind of grouping you're looking at |
| pharyngeal pouches vs pharyngeal slits | slits are an extension of pouches, a single character |
| ciliated band | surface of deuterostome laravae have a long set of looped ciliated cells, protostomata do not |
| cavitation (protostomes) | mesoderm kind of splits to cavitation |
| evagination (deuterostomes), enterocoely, check book | invagination occurs in the mesoderm to create coelem |
| fission track dating | slice rocks extremely thinly, observe the tiny slices and all the scars indicate radioactive decay. more scars = more decay = older |
| peat fossils | bacteria is anoxic, no oxygen = little decay |
| ammocetes | larval stage of a lamprey, craniate |
| #22 studyguide: rapid locamotion | myomeres |
| #22 studyguide: chemoreception | olfactory placode |
| #22 studyguide: statocysts | otic placode |
| #22 studyguide: excellent vision | optic placode |
| #22 studyguide: anteriorly located nerve tissue | brain |
| #22 studyguide: what trend does this deomonstrate | cephalization |
| #22 studyguide: what would you call this kind of similarity | homoplasy, convergence |
| sister group | given taxons closest relative, two clades are sister groups if they share a common ancestor shared by nobody else at all, unique to them and them alone |
| convergecnce | non homologous similarity, superficial similarities, easily shown that the two are different, not related |
| parallelism | nonhomologous, siilarities are very close indieed, shuggesting similar or identical genetics that gave rise to the nonhomologous characteristics |
| 3rd way to describe glands | simple vs branched. in simple the duct is simple and there is only one lobe, ind branched, the duct is branched and there are multiple lobes |
| types of secretion: merocrine | secretion by exocytosis |
| types of secretion: apocrine | the tipe of the cell that is secreting breaks off and releases product |
| types of secretion: holocrine | whole secretory cell shed onto free surface and breaks |
| Connective tissue: mesenchyme | embryonic and fetal tissue, precursor of adult connective tissue, starshaped w large intracellular spaces, most cells are ameboid, neural crests are a type of mesenchyme called ectomesencyme |
| Connective tissue: cellular components | fibroblasts: spindle shaped cells, produce collagenous fibers. macrophages: immune system cells, phagocytosis. Mast cells: immune system cells, produces histamine and lets fluid leak out of capillary. Fat cell: stores fat. Plasma cells: immune systemcell |
| connective tissue: extracellular components | collagenous fiber: made of collagen, resists stretching. reticular fibers: very fine, formed to support tissue. elastic fiber: made of elastin, stretches and maintains shape. ground substance: fluid diffusion medium of connective tissue |
| types of connective tissue: loose | characterized by loose networks of collagneous, elastic and reticular fibers. lots of fibroblasts, mast cells, macrophages, clusters of fat cells |
| types of connective tissue: dence | tendons, ligaments, capsules, very few to no cells present, highly fibrous |
Created by:
hsinha93
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