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Phys unit 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| All organic compounds contain? Type of bond? | Carbon and Hydrogen Chains of covalent carbon to carbon |
| 4 basic groups of organic compounds | carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids |
| Functional groups of organic molecules can contain? | O, N, Ph, S |
| Composition of carbs | CH2O Twice as many molecules of hydrogen than carbon and oxygen |
| Carbs name ends in? make up? | ose starches and sugars |
| Basic unit of a carb? combine 2 carbs through___ and get___ | Monosaccharide dehydration synthesis, disaccharide |
| 3 monosaccharaides | glucose fructose and galactose |
| 3 disaccharides | maltose=2 glucose sucrose=glucose+fructose lactose=glucose+galactose |
| What is the preferred source of energy? | glucose |
| What is a polysaccharide? | numerous monosaccharide joined together, chains of repeating glucose |
| What is the storage form of carb? | starch |
| starch structure? where found? what do we do with it? | long chain, highly unbranched found in fruit, roots eat starch and break down into glucose so we can use it. |
| Storage form of carbs in animal? | glycogen |
| Glycogen- structure? what do we do with it? What do we do with extra? | long chain, highly branched break down into glucose and use it store extra as glycogen in muscles and live, excess becomes fat |
| Carb found in plan cell walls | cellulose |
| structure of cellulose | polysaccharide of glucose found in plant cell walls |
| Digest cellulose? | Can't digest it- can't break down linkage of enzymes- serves as fiber animals have bacteria that can digest it. |
| Dehydration synthesis | 1. hydrogen atom removed from 1 monosaccharide 2. hydroxyl group removed from another 3. Covalent bond formed between 2 monosaccharide 4. water is produced |
| hydrolysis | digestion- eat disaccharide, break covalent bonds that join monosaccharide. water molecule is split and H added to one and OH to another |
| Lipids composed of? polarity? | hydrocarbon rings- more H and less O than carbs nonpolar and hydrophobic- insoluble in polar solvents (water) |
| Richest source of energy? | Lipids, don't use as much because it is easier to break down a carb |
| Lipids can combine with other molecules in the body to form? | phospholipids lipoproteins |
| Do lipids make up structural material? | Phospholipid bilayer in plasma membrane prostaglandins- insulation in hypodermis, prevents loss of body heat and gives body form |
| 2 major types of lipids | Triglycerides sterols |
| Triglycerides what are they? formed from? | fat and oil 1 molecule glycerol+3 molecules fatty acid |
| triglyceride structure | nonpolar hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl (COOH) group on the end |
| saturated fat | carbon atoms in hydrocarbon chain are joined by single covalent bond so each carbon can bond with 2 hydrogen |
| unsaturated fat | double covalent bond in carbon chain so carbons can only bond with one hydrogen atom |
| Triglycerides are formed by? | dehydration synthesis- carboxyl ends of fatty acid molecules condense with hydroxyl group of a molecule- can no longer release H so not an acid but a neutral fat |
| Hydrolysis of triglyceride | releases free fatty acids used as immediate energy |
| phospholipids all contain | phosphate group |
| phospholipids are a major component of? | cell membranes- amphipathic nature allows them to form a double layer with their polar portions facing the water on each side of membrane |
| micelles | group so polar parts face surrounding water |
| steroids polarity? | nonpolar and insoluble in water |
| composition of steroids | 3 6carbon rings joined to 1 5carbon ring have different functional groups |
| how is cholesterol important? | serves as precursor for the steroid hormones produced by gonads and adrenal cortex sex steroids and corticosteroids |
| Prostaglandins are also called? What are they? | local hormones type of fatty acid with a cyclic hydrocarbon group- membrane bound |
| Where are prostaglandins produced and what do they do? | produced in all organs variety of functions, regulation of blood vessel dilation, uterine contractions, inflammation, blood clotting, pain.... |
| Proteins are composed of? | amino acid subunits |
| How many types of amino acids? | 20 |
| What are proteins composed of? | C, H, O, N and sometimes sulfur and phosphates |
| combine 2 amino acids you form a? | peptide bond |
| sequence of amino acids in a protein is determined by? | genetic info contain in nucleic acids |
| each amino acid contains? What makes them different? | amino group (NH2) on one end and a carboxyl (COOH) group on the other end differences in functional groups |
| How are amino acids joined? | dehydration synthesis H from amino end of an amino acid combines with the hydroxyl group on the carboxyl end of the other amino acid |
| Structural importance of amino acids | found in enzymes and hormones |
| up to 20 amino acids= more than 20= | peptide polypeptide |
| 4 levels of structure of a protein | 1. primary-polypeptide strand, sequence of amino acids, unique to each protein 2. secondary (alpha helix, pleated sheet)weak hydrogen bonds 3. tertiary- overall 3d shape 4. quaternary- more than 1 polypeptide combine |
| secondary structure of protein | pleated sheet, alpha helix weak H bonds form between the H atom of an amino acid group to an oxygen atom from an amino acid near by- gives shape |
| tertiary structure of protein | overall 3D shape chains fold and bend upon themselves stabilized by weak chemical interactions between functional groups of amino acids located part along polypeptide chain |
| denaturation of protein | changes in tertiary structure by high temp or changes in pH retain their primary structure but have altered chemical properties |
| glycoproteins= | protein+carb |
| lipoprotein= | Protein+lipids plasma membrane |
| structural protein= | collagen, connective tissue |
| enzymes name ends is? beginning of name tells? | ase what its going to act on or what type of reaction it will catalyze route word is substrate |
| catalyze | speed up reaction, but not change or be used up |
| what is an organic catalyst? | enzyme |
| nucleic acids are? they are composed of? | macromolecules of DNA and RNA composed of C,H,O, N, phosphate group |
| subunit of nucleic acid? | nucleotide |
| nucleotide is composed of? | 3 subunits 1. five carbon pentose sugar 2. phosphate group attached to one end off the sugar 3. nitrogenous base on the other end of the sugar |
| difference between RNA and DNA is? | the 5 carbon sugar |
| 4 nitrogenous bases | Thymine (uracil) cytosine guanine adenine |
| pyrimidine | single ring of carbon nitrogenous base thymine (uracil) cytosine |
| purine | double ring carbon nitrogenous base guanine and adenine |
| 4 bases of DNA | Thymine, guanine, adenine and cytosine |
| 4 bases of RNA | guanine, adenine, uracil and cytosine |
| DNA codes for? | proteins |
| 3 places DNA is located | nucleus, mitochondria, cilia |
| sugar molecule of DNA | 5 carbon deoxyribose covalently bonds to 4 nitrogenous bases 4 different types of nucleotides that can be used to produce DNA chain |
| How is DNA formed? | Phosphate group condenses with the deoxyribose sugar of another nucleotide- this forms a sugar phosphate chain as water is removed in dehydration synthesis |
| what does DNA sugar phosphate chain look like? | Looks like a backbone from which base prroject |
| How does DNA molecule become double strand | Bases form hydrogen bonds with other bases which are joined to a different chain of nucelotides |
| what bases pair together and what type of H bond do they form? | guanine and cytosine- 3H bond thymine and adenine_ 2H bond |
| RNA is formed from? | long chains of nucleotides joined together by sugar phosphate bonds |
| 3 differences RNA has from DNA | contains sugar ribose instead of deoxyribose base uracil in place of thymine composed of dingle polynucleotide strand |
| 3 major types of RNA | Messenger Transfer Ribosome |
| DNA directs protein synthesis using? | RNA |
| Role of ATP? | Carries info from DNA out of cell energy carrier (ATP and GTP) |
| Chromatin | DNA is vegetative cell -cell prepares to divide and chromatin twist and turn and add to histone |
| Storage form of energy in a cell | ATP |
| How do you make energy from ATP? | Break bond and split off last phosphate group-gain 6x as much energy as normal phosphate bond. Break off 2nd bond, 4x more energy |
| Burn___ to make ATP for cell | glucose |
| Storage form of energy in a cell | ATP |
| How do you make energy from ATP? | Break bond and split off last phosphate group-gain 6x as much energy as normal phosphate bond. Break off 2nd bond, 4x more energy |
| What does DNA need to start replication? | primer- little short molecule of RNA that is complementary to one of the strands- binds to strand and then has to be removed |
| Burn___ to make ATP for cell | glucose |
| What does the cell do when it is replicating DNA before it divides? | enzymes break weak H bonds between complementary bases to produce 2 free strands (Y shaped) replication fork each strand acts as a template for new strand of DNA |
| What does DNA need to start replication? | primer- little short molecule of RNA that is complementary to one of the strands- binds to strand and then has to be removed |
| DNA polymerase | join nucleotides together to form a 2nd polynucleotide chain in each DNA that is complementary to the first strand of DNA |
| DNA replication is | semiconservative - half of the original DNA is conserved in each of the new DNA molecules |
| DNA forms the___ of individual people | genome |
| human genome | map body, find out where the chromosomes are located |
| genotype | genetic makeup |
| phenotype | outward expression of genes |
| RNA is complementary to | A portion of a DNA molecule |
| RNA carries___ to___ | genetic info from a DNA molecule to nucleolus, cytosol and ribosomes |
| 3 types of RNA | messenger, transport, ribosome |
| What does mRNA do? | takes genetic info from to DNA to site of protein synthesis- contains code for the synthesis of specific proteins |
| What does tRNA do? | shortest RNA, carries single amino acid to site of protein synthesis- needed for decoding the genetic message contained in mRNA cloverleaf structure |
| What does rRNA do? | site where mRNA is read to produce a particular protein- forms part of the structure of ribosomes |
| Genetic transcription | DNA code copied onto a strand of RNA- must happen in order for genetic code to be translated into synthesis of specific proteins |
| Where is the site of protein synthesis? | ribosomes |
| Most RNA is? | rRNA |
| promoter site | place where RNA molecule starts to form |
| RNA polymerase | an enzyme that forms RNA molecule engages with a promoter region to transcribe an individual gene -breaks H bonds between DNA strands-freed bases then pair (H bonds) with complementary RNA nucleotide bases present in the nucleoplasm |
| DNA is split and __ strand serves as a guide for ___ | 1 RNA synthesis |
| When the RNA molecule is produced on a strand of DNA it___ | detaches from the DNA strand from which it was formed |
| When does genetic transcription end? | process continues infinitely - when gene is no longer to be transcribed the separate DNA strands can go back together again |
| Translation | The production of specific proteins according to the code contained in the mRNA base sequence. Read RNA molecule 3 bases at a time |
| each triplet is called a? | codon |
| each codon calls for | a particular amino acid |
| What has an anticodon? | tRNA has a triplet of bases that are complimentary to a triplet of mRNA |
| Is protein synthesis anabolic or catabolic | anabolism-requires energy (ATP) |
| Describe RNA synthesis | the enzyme RNA polymerase engages a promoter region to transcribe a gene. It breaks the H bonds between DNA strands. The freed bases pair with complementary RNA nucleotides in the nucleoplasm. RNA molecule is formed and detaches from DNA |
| Structure of tRNA | cloverleaf One end of the L shape contains the anticodon to a specific codon on mRNA |
| tRNA can bind to? | One specific amino acid. There are 61 different codons for the 20 different amino acids and 3 that code for stop |
| tRNA are found where? capable of bonding to? | in the cytoplasm of the cell each tRNA bonded to a specific amino acid and each of these tRNA molecules is capable of bonding with a specific mRNA codon |
| How are polypeptides formed? | mRNA moves through ribosome, tRNA anticiodons bind with mRNA codons. Each tRNA molecule has a specific amino acid, join together by peptide bond to create polypeptide whose amino acid sequence has been determined by mRNA |
| mRNA protein synthesis begins with? ends with? | start codon nonsense codon- when it gets here it releases mRNA and protein |
| Describe protein synthesis | 2 tRNA molecules containing anticodons specific to 1st and 2nd mRNA codon enter ribosome, each with own amino acid tRNA and mRNA bind codon and anitcodon, first amino acid detaches from its tRNA and bonds to second amino acid-peptide bond |
| In protein synthesis what happens after the first dipeptide bond is formed? | mRNA moves down a distance of one codon, allowing the first tRNA (now minus its amino acid)to detach from the mRNA- at this time the second tRNA with its dipeptide bond moves up one position in the ribosome. 3rd tRNA attaches to the third codon of mRNA |
| What causes mutations in protein replication | accident in division process physical agents-radiation chemical agents-formaldehyde mutations can be natural or induced |
| metabolism | sum of reactions within a cell |
| anabolic reactions | synthesis reactions-take smaller units and join them together-endothermic |
| catabolic reactions | break down, lose energy, exothermic |
| energy of activation | energy to get started |
| catalyst | increase rate of reaction, not permanently used up or changed |
| what is an organic catalyst? | protein |
| apoenzyme | inactive enzyme that requires a cofactor or coenzyme |
| cofactor | inorganic molecule |
| coenzyme | organic molecule |
| holoenzyme | apoenzyme + cofactor or coenzyme |
| active site on protein has to fit on___ | substrate |
| Substrates combine and form ___ | enzyme substrate complex brings 2 close together and helps them react enzyme is released and 2 new products are formed |
| rate of enzyme reaction is affected by___ and __ | temp and pH both have min, max, and optima levles |
| enzymes can react with a cofactor to change__ | activation sites, now it will fit and a reaction will occur |
| how does concentration of a substrate affect rate of reaction? | an increase in concentration increases the rate of reaction until we reach saturation, |
| end product inhibition | use, store or alter product to keep reaction going and not start to reverse one saturation is reached, reactions will start to go backwards unless the end product is changed |
| oxidation | removal of elctrons of H atoms or H ions from a molecule -often remove 2H atoms at a time -often dehydrogenation |
| reduction | addition of electrons, H atoms or H ions to a molecule |
| acronym to remember oxidation and reduction | LEO says GER Less Electrons Oxidation Gain Electrons Reduction |
| Cells oxidize glucose to___ | release potential energy stored in bonds |
| major nutrient oxidized is? 3 steps? | glucose 1. oxidation 2. manufacture ATP 3. decomposition of ATP to release energy to power cells |
| 5 steps of digestion | 1. carbs hydrolyzed into glucose and fructose 2. absorbed, taken to liver by hepatic portal v 3. fructose and galactose conv to glucose 4.glucose goes into blood or stroed as glycogen 5. run out of glucose and glycogen, burn fat |
| glycogenesis | glycogen synthesis in which glucose molecules are added to chains of glycogen for storage formation of glycogen from glucose- |
| glycogenolysis | breakdown of glycogen to glucose 6 phosphate |
| lipogenesis | simple sugars such as glucose are converted to fatty acids |
| gluconeogenesis | breakdown of fat/proteins through pyruvic acids when body runs out of glycogen, doesn't happen very often |
| 3 pathways is complete oxidation of glucose in the body | 1. glycolysis 2. kreb cycle 3. electron transport chain |
| glycolysis | anaerobic in cytoplasm of cell -2ATP->4ATP+2NADH+2 pyruvic acids *significance is production of pyruvic acids- it moves into matrix of mitochondria |
| transition (in oxidation of glucose in body) | 2NADH + 2 CoA pyruvic acid +coenzyme A = acetyl coenzyme A |
| Krebs Cycle | cellular respiration 2ATP->6NADH+2FADH (formula for going twice because of the 2CoA) |
| Electron transport system | carrier molecules on Christi of mitochondria series of oxidation and reduction reactions -each NADH that goes through ETS you get 3 ATP ETS->30ATP+4ATP |
| complete oxidation of glucose yields? | 38 ATP |
| body is ___%effective | 43% captured as ATP, rest given off as heat |
| ATP produced in mitochondria has to be taken to__ | cytoplasm to be used for cellular activity |
| Glycogen is a polymer of__ store how much? and where? | glucose 500g, 1.1 lbs 80%stored in muscles |
| What is the hormone that stimulates glycogenysis? | insulin-storage hormone |
| What is the hormone that stimulate glycogenolysis? | glucagon- reconverts glycogen to glucose |
| insulin and glucagon are both produced in? | the pancreas |
| 4 parts of brain | brainstem, diencephalon, cerebellum, cerebrum |
| 3 parts of brain stem | midbrain (mesencephalon) pons medulla oblangata |
| 2 parts of diencephalon | thalamus hypothalamus |
| where is the medulla oblongata? what is it composed of? | -small portion of brain stem that is continuous with spinal cord. -made of white matter- ascending and descending nerve tracts that take info into and out of brain. -has some reticular formation |
| reticular formation | interlacement of grey and white matter |
| 2 types of nuclei in medulla oblongata? | vital- if disease causes damage to vital nuclei you wont survive non vital |
| 3 types of vital nuclei in medulla oblongata | 1. cardiac center- affects rate of strength of contraction 2. vasomotor- constrict or dilate blood vessels, controls BP 3. respiratory- medullary rhythmicity center, controls normal breathing rhythm- in 2 out 3 |
| What is the non vital nuclei responsible for in the medulla oblongata? | coughing, sneezing, vomiting, swallowing, hiccups |
| what are the pyramids in the medulla oblongata? | formed by motor tracts going from brain to spinal cord decussation of pyramid- right controls left side and left controls right side. |
| Pons structure? composed of? | bridge like in structure and function- connects hindbrain to forebrain -has white matter and reticular formation |
| 2 respiratory center in the pons | pneumotaxic apneusitc -both are non vital and control higher levels of respiration |
| midbrain what runs through it? composed of? | has a donut shaped cerebral aqueduct that runs through it -mostly white matter |
| cerebral peduncle where is it found? what is it and what does it do? | midbrain ropelike mass of white matter that extends from pons to cerebrum -nerve tracts that connect forebrain to hindbrain |
| cerebellum structure | 2 hemispheres separated by a vermis |
| 3 functions of cerebellum, all related to? | related to control of skeletal muscle 1. works with cerebral cortex to do skilled movement 2. posture 3. equilibrium |
| diencephalon surrounds? made up of? | the 3rd ventricle thalamus and hypothalamus |
| Thalamus made up of? | lots of nuceli and has large axons that bring impulse into nuclei - sensory (afferent) neurons bring info in. -other axons take into to other parts of brain (also sensory) |
| What is the relay station for most sensory input? | thalamus- all sensory impulses come through except olfactory |
| Thalamus is the center for? | -touch, pain, pressure, temp -emotion of pleasantness or unpleasant |
| hypothalamus location function | below thalamus, floor of 3rd ventricle -functions as link between mind and body -links nervous system and endocrine system (2 regulatory systems) |
| hypothalamus has reward center for? | eating, drinking, mating |
| 3 main functions of hypothalamus? | homeostasis, hormone production, arousal |
| 2 nuclei in hypothalamus that produce hormones What are the hormones and where are they stored? | antidiuretic (ADH) oxytocin- milk let down, uterine contractions -hormones are neurosecretions- travel along axon and stored and releases by posterior pituitarty |
| How does the hypothalamus affect the anterior pituitary hormone | produce inhibiting or stimulating factors that regulate secretion of anterior pituitary hormone |
| 4 things the hypothalamus controls? | arousal- how fast you wake up regulates appetite thirst center body temp- shiver when cold, sweat when hot |
| Where are rage and aggression controlled? | hypothalamus -was originally thought to be found only in men, but as womens roles in society change, there has been an increase in rage and aggression in women. |
| Hypothalamus provides route by which? | emotions are expressed in change of bodily function ex: palms sweat when nervous, have to pee when excited or nervous |
| hypothalamus nuclei help with? | homeostasis- hormone and water balance |
| nerve tracts in hypothalamus | nerve tracts sent to sympathetic (stressful) and parasympathetic (normal functions) -efferent |
| cerebrum parts | Largest part of brain divided into right and left hemispheres -each hemisphere is divided into 4 lobes- -corpus callosum connects hemispheres |
| What part of the brain gives us our uniquely human functions of logic, reasoning and abstract thinking? | cerebrum |
| 3 types of functions cerebrum performs? | sensory, motor and integrative |
| What is lateralization? | When the right and left hemispheres are doing something different. Lateralization occurs in only 1 hemisphere |
| What is the cerebral cortex composed of? | gray matter |
| What part of the brain allows individual self awareness and awareness of the environment and other beings | cortex |
| Where do higher mental processes occur? memory, logic, judgment? | cerebrum |
| cerebrum has perception of___ and control of___ | sensation movement |
| What is located anterior to the central sulcus? | Primary Motor Cortex |
| What is found in the primary motor cortex? How is it arranged? | neurons that are involved in receiving motor input from the body-control of voluntary skeletal muscles -spatially organized- according to how many receptors in part of body, hand and face have more than leg and foot |
| What is located anterior to the primary motor cortex? | pre-motor cortex |
| What does the premotor cortex do? | performs learned muscle skills- muscle sequences, successive contractions ex- running, riding a bike, typing |
| Broccas is responsible for? where is it located? | motor speech, programmed for all muscle movements to talk -found only in left hemisphere |
| Where is the primary somatic sensory cortex located? | parietal lobe, posterior to central sulcus |
| What happens in the primary somatic sensory cortex? how is it arranged? | -has neurons that receive info from general skin receptors of skin -proprioceptors from muscle allow you to know which part of body is being activated, posture, balance -spatially arranged |
| What does the somatic association center do? | evaluates based on past experience size, temp, texture, memory |
| Where is the primary visual cortex located? | occipital lobe |
| What occurs in the primary visual cortex? | info from retina goes into primary visual cortex -past experience helps you to recognize in visual association area -surrounded by visual association center |
| Where is the primary auditory cortex located? | along superior border of temporal lobe |
| primary auditory cortex- what does it do? | surrounded by auditory association center -receives input from ear -analyzes and decides if its noise, speech, music on basis of past experience |
| Where is the olfactory cortex? | temporal lobe |
| Where is the gustatory region? what is it? | parietal lobe sense of taste |
| wernickes area- where is it? what is it involved in? what is it part of? | -temporal lobe -involved in comprehension of written and spoken language, word into thoughts, mental pictures -lateralized in left lobe |
| (Gnostic) General interpretation region Where is it? What does it do | parietal lobe- lateralized in left lobe -storage area for complex memory patterns associated with sensations -smell makes you remember taste association areas into a single thought |
| What is the effective language are? Where is it? | opposite broccas area, lateralized in right side -emotional content of language, non verbal, expression of emotions- tone, facial expressions, gesture |
| Where is the prefrontal cortex located? | anterior portion of the frontal lobe |
| What does the prefrontal lobe control? | elaboration of thought, intelligence, motivation, personality *associate experience to understand abstract ideas, judgment, persistence, planning, concern for others, reasoning -where your conscious is |
| How is the limbic system shaped and where is it located? | wishbone shape structure that encircles the brain stem -deep within the brain-don't know much about it |
| What is the limbic system responsible for? | -emotional or feeling part of brain emotional aspects of behavior related to survival (ex-scream) also with memory related to emotion |
| What type of research is being done on limbic system? | Anger management -research on monkeys-they are afraid of snakes but when their limbic system is destroyed they will play with snakes |
| do autonomic nerves innervate organs that are under voluntary or involuntary control? what does it innervate? | involuntary -cardiac muscle, smooth muscle and glands |
| efferent neurons afferent neurons | -motor -sensory |
| 2 types of efferent neurons? what do they do? | somatic- autonomic -conduct impulses away from the CNS |
| How does a somatic neuron work to conduct impulses? | conduct impulse along a single axon from the spinal cord to the neuromuscular junction -send impulses to skeletal muscles, voluntary control -cell bodies located within CNS |
| How does an autonomic neuron work to conduct impulses? | -involves 2 neurons -first neuron is preganglionic neuron, it synapses with a second neuron with a ganglion -second neuron is called the postganglionic neuron, it has an axon that extends from ganglion to an effector organ. |
| sympathetic parasympathetic | -fight or flight -normal functioning |
| What are some functions of the ANS? | dilation of pupils, heart rate, peristalsis, secretion by glands |
| autonomic nerves neurotransmitter | norepinephrine - can stimulate or inhibit activity of effectors |
| neurotransmitter for somatic neuron to a skeletal muscle | ACh |
| What is a ganglion? | a collection of cell bodies outside of the CNS |
| What is lactic acid converted to in the liver? | pyruvic acid |
| What does the Cori Cycle do? | lactic acid produced during exercise is transformed through gluconeogenesis in the liver to blood glucose |
| What is the difference between anaerobic and aerobic respiration? | in anaerobic respiration the last electron acceptor is an organic molecule and in aerobic respiration the last electron acceptor is an atom of oxygen |
| What does the lactic acid pathway yield? | 2 ATP molecules (produced by glycolysis) per glucose molecule |
| What type of respiration do red blood cells use? | anaerobic- don't have mitochondria, the can only use lactic acid pathway- can't use oxygen |
| Where does anaerobic respiration occur and why? | occurs for short periods of time in tissues that have energy requirements in excess of their aerobic ability -skeletal muscles when the ratio of oxygen supply to oxygen need falls below critical level -produces some ATP until oxygen deficiency ends |
| What does the Cori Cycle allow skeletal muscles to do? | restore glycogen |
| What happens in the Cori Cycle? | Muscle glycogen source of glucose 6 phosphate for the lactic acid pathway -lactic acid carried by blood to live and converted back to glucose 6 phosphate, then converted to free glucose which is carried in blood back to skeletal muscles |
| How is lactic acid formed? | NADH produced in glycolysis is oxidized in cytoplasm by donating its electrons to pyruvic acid. Result is formation of NAD + addition of 2 H atoms to pyruvic acid (reduced) which forms lactic acid |
| What is a triglyceride composed of? | glycerol + 3 fatty acids |
| What is lipogenesis? | Formation of fat in adipose tissue and in the liver when the concentration of blood glucose is elevated after a meal. |
| What is lipolysis? | lipase enzyme hydrolyzes triglycerides into glycerol and free fatty acids- occurs when fat stored in adipose tissue is going to be used for energy |
| What enzyme do adipose cells contain? | lipase |
| What can lipase convert lipids into? | glycerol + 3 fatty acids |
| What is glycerol? | 3 carbon atom that can be converted into pyruvic acid and go through Krebs cycle |
| fatty acids can be converted into? | acetyl CoA |
| When a 16 carbon fatty acid goes through Krebs cycle and electron transport system how many ATP are produced? | 108 |
| What happens to glycerol when it is freed from fatty acid and enters the blood? | taken up by liver and converted into glucose through gluconeogenesis |
| What hormone stimulates lipogenesis? | insulin |
| What 2 hormones promote gluconeogenesis? | cortisol-adrenal cortex thyroxin-thyroid gland |
| How are ketone bodies formed? | If rate of lipolysis exceeds rate of fatty acid utilization(diet, starvation, diabetes) blood concentration of fatty acids increases. If liver cells have enough ATP some of the acetyl CoA from fatty acids is channeled to make ketone bodies |
| What occurs in Beta Oxidation? | enzymes remove 2 carbon acetic acid molecules from the acid end of a fatty chain which leads to the formation of acetyl CoA and the 3rd carbon is oxidized to produce a new carboxyl group- process continues until entire fatty acid is acetyl CoA |
| What are the most significant energy carriers provided by lipolysis? | free fatty acids |
| What decreases a fatty acid chain in length by 2 carbons? | beta oxidation |
| Where does protein synthesis occur? | ribosomes of cells |
| What do catabolic reactions do? | break down proteins so we can use them |
| What is an essential amino acid? How many are there? | cant be synthesized in diet, must be included in diet 8 (9 in kids) |
| How many amino acids are there? | 20 |
| What type of reaction is protein synthesis? what hormones stimulate it? | anabolic growth hormone, thyroxin, insulin |
| What are the main substrates for gluconeogenesis? | 3 carbon long molecules of alanine, lactic acid and glycerol |
| What is deamination? | remove amino group from protein and the remaining R group goes through Krebs cycle -how protein is converted to glucose |
| What determines when and how much of a hormone is secreted? | the needs of the body |
| What are the three functions of the nervous system? | orientation, coordination, and intelligence -functions are overlapping and independent |
| What do sensory neurons do? | pick up stimuli from sense organs and carries it toward the central nervous system - afferent |
| What is the nervous system? | complex network of neurons that function and receive stimulus |
| What are association neurons? | also called interneurons -receive stimulus from sensory neuron and evaluates info and decides if body needs to respond |
| What does body do if it decides it needs to respond to stimuli? | uses a motor neuron to take info out of CNS to muscle or gland (some type of effector organ) |
| How are nerve impulses transmitted? | along an axon |
| What is a charge inside a cell? What gives it its negative charge? | -70mx non diffusible protein ions |
| What is resting potential? | resting cell with -70mx |
| What is action potential? | It causes sodium gates to open and allows sodium to move into cell which depolarizes the cell Potassium ions move out and the neuron is repolarized |
| What is the refractory period? | time in which cell is getting restored to resting potential -sodium is inside and potassium is outside and it has to used the potassium pump to get cell back to resting potential |
| Can a cell receive another impulse during refractory period? | no |
| how does an impulse move along axon? | wave of depolarization and repolarization along axon |
| What is the difference between the way impulses move along myelinated and unmyelinated axons? | on myelinated axons the impulse travels 100x faster than on unmyelinated axons because they only have to repolrize at nodes |
| What part of the neuron contains the neurotransmitter? | synaptic vesicles which are found within the synaptic bulb |
| What carries the action potential across the synaptic cleft? | neurotransmitter |
| What is the process to release a neurotransmitter across a synaptic cleft? | 1. action potentials reach axon terminals 2. voltage gated calcium channels open 3. calcium binds to protein in cytoplasm 4.calcium protein complex stimulates fusion and exocytosis of neurotransmitter |
| What happens when the Calcium channels open? | calcium moves into synaptic end bulb and the calcium activates protein and they pull synaptic bulbs to the surface and then contents of vesicles are emptied by exocytosis |
| What is the most important neurotransmitter in a neuromuscular junction? | acetyl choline (ACh) |
| How long does a neurotransmitter cycle continue? What makes it stop? | impulse continues infinitely -acetylcholinesterase removes neurotransmitter molecule to stop cycle-it is now ready for a new impulse |
| Does a neuron respond to all stimuli? | neurons receive a lot of stimuli but only respond when it reaches liminal level or above -obey the all or none law-responds maximally or not at all |
| What does a liminal stimulus do? | **any liminal stimulus is strong enough to generate an action potential and that action potential will be conducted along the entire axon at a constant and maximum strength |
| In the ANS the postganglionic fiber is __ and is located in___ the preganglionic fiber is___ and located in ___ | -postganglionic fiber in parasympathetic is long and located in or near effector organ -a preganglionic fiber in sympathetic is short and located near spinal cord |
| What does the ANS do? | regulates visceral effectors that allows us to maintain or restore homeostasis |
| What does the sympathetic nervous system do? | emergency situations, stress situations that can be physical or emotional |
| In sympathetic the fibers carry info to? | visceral effectors |
| What kind of changes does the sympathetic allow us to make? | physiological changes that allow us to have maximum physical exertion ex- increased heart rate, increase blood sugar |
| sympathetic causes an increase in secretion of__? | epinephrine |
| What does the parasympathetic regulate? | main regulator of many visceral effectors -normal heart rate, peristalsis, secretion, digestion, elimination |
| What is the main neurotransmitter of the parasympathetic? | acetylcholine |
| What is a tract? | a collection of axons within the CNS that forms the white matter of the CNS |
| What is a nucleus? | an aggregation of neuron cell bodies within the brain. nuclei within the brain are surrounded by white matter and are located deep in the cerebral cortex |
| what is a ganglion? | a grouping of nerve cell bodies located outside the brain and spinal cord |
| What is a nerve? | a collection of motor axons and sensory dendrites in the PNS |
| 3 language areas of brain | wernickes- temporal lobe, Left, comprehension of written and spoken language Broccas- frontal, left, coordination of muscles for speech Effective language area- Right, opposite broccas, expression of emotions-tone, gestures |
| 4 brain areas located in frontal lobe? | Broccas- muscles for speech primary motor cortex-voluntary skeletal muscle Pre-motor cortex-learned muscle skills prefrontal cortex- personality, thoughts, planning, concern for others |
| 4 brain areas located in Parietal lobe? | Primary sensory cortex-posture, balance Somatic sensory association area- evaluates on past experience-size, temp, texture Gustatory- taste Gnostic (General Interpretation Area) complex memory patterns, association into thought |
| 2 brain areas found in occipital lobe? | Primary visual cortex-info from retina goes here visual association area- past experience helps you recognize things seen |
| 4 brain areas found in temporal lobe? | olfactory-smell Primary auditory cortex- input from ear Auditory association area- analyzes sound and decides if its noise, speech, music Wernickes- comprehension of written and spoken language |
| The ANS is ___ and ___ It controls___? | involuntary and efferent smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands regulates visceral effeectors |
| sympathetic and parasympathetic work together to ___? | maintain homeostasis |
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Andi.fox
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