Bacterial diseases of the respiratory tract that are B hemolytic.

S. pyogenes and S. agalactia ( group b strep).

Gram neg,bacilli with vacuoles,fastidious.Tx with Quinolines,polymixins.Infections come from aerosolized water infected with the microbe.Kills amoebas.

Legionnaires Disease.(Legionella pneumophila)

Acid fast,waxy cell envelopes, Mantoux test, tine test, sputum, x-ray to diagnose.Rod shape.Tx with Isoniazid.

Tuberculosis.(Mycobacterium tuberculosis).

Bacterial diseases of the respiratory tract that are gram positive.

S. pneumoniae,S. agalactia, S.pyogenes.

Bacterial diseases of the respiratory tract that are gram negative.

Chlamydia pneumonia,Hemophilus influenza,Neisseria meningitids.

Viral diseases of the respiratory tract?

Cold,chickenpox,rubella, influenza,measles, mumps,polio.= c chrimmp.

Non enveloped,icosahedral capsid shell sourounds rna genome,infects alimentary canal and invades neurons of the spinal column and causes disease.Transmitted in food and water and infects the adenoids & lymph tissue in intestines or spreads through blood.

Polio virus.Polio myelitis.Leads to paralysis of the arms,legs,diaphram.

Koplicks spots,encephalitis in 0.1% and pneumonia in 5%.Rare complication sub acute sclerosing panencephalitis.

measles sysmptoms and possible complications.

Encapsulated yeast found in pigeon droppings,causes pneumonia & meningitiscapsule is a antiphagocytic factor,produces urease,must have T cells to fight it.Aids pt suffer 25% deaths from this.

cryptococcus(Filobasidiella neoformans).

Dimorphic,no capsule,causes an infection of the lungs called histoplasmosis,commonly seen in the Ohio-Mississippi valley and grows best in bird manure.

Histoplasmosis.(histoplasmosis capsulatum).

Yeast at body temp,mold in the environment ,seen in dry alkaline soils(SW USA- Valley fever California)pulmonary or meningeal,forms spore sack called spherules.

Coccidioidiomycosis.(Dimorphic).

Rna ribosomal gene sequence,mold with some feature like protozoa,biggest cause of death for AIDS pt 50%.No problem for pt with intact immune system.

Pneumocytosis(pneumocytosis jirovecii).

Inflammation of the stomach.Short helico rods,microaerophile,gram neg,causes ulcers,makes urease to defeat stomach mucous layer so acid damages epithelial cells and bacteria damage and colonize the stomach more easily.this can cause stomach cancer.

Gastritis(Helicobacter pylori).

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Microbiology RWG

For final exam.

Question	Answer
A disease caused by diphtherotoxin which inhibits the 80s ribosome of the host, affects the heart and nervouse system, and sometimes causes death.	Diptheria.
The cause of Diptheria, also called Corynebacterium diphtheria.	Diphtherotoxin.
A disease known as whooping cough that mainly affects young children;it is caused by Bordetella pertusis.Affets females more than males.	Pertusis.
Gram neg ,pleomorphic rods,hib conjugate vaccine protects against b serotype.fastidious, most common cause of meningitis.90% fatal if untreated.Also causes otitis media.	Hemophilus influenzae.
Gram neg diplococci,fastidious,usually caled meningococcus and is highly invasive, identified with a spinal tap and looking for gram neg diplococci.Pcn very effective .	Neisseria meningitidis.
Gram neg, no cell wall, obligate intracellular pathogen.Developmental cycle where the infection form is different from the vegetative, intracellular form. Cant be grown in bacterial media and causes 15% of bacterial pneumonias.High titer = future MI/cva.	Chlamydia pneumoniae.
Bacterial diseases of the respiratory tract that are A hemolytic?	S. pneumoniae and Veridians.
Bacterial diseases of the respiratory tract that are B hemolytic.	S. pyogenes and S. agalactia ( group b strep).
B hemolytic, group A c carb, pyogenic,gram positive, causes strep throat,scarlet fever,.c carb prevents lysozyme entry and petidoglycan deg.M protein antiphagocytic.hyalaronic capsule+like connective tissue.S. aureus antibody capsule.Streptolysins SLO	S. pyogenes.
Group b strep,b hemolytic,gram+,been associated with mastitis in cows,normal vaginal microbe.Causes septicemia and bacterial meningitis.	S.agalactia.
A group of strep but not a genus name,a-hemolytic,optochin resistant,no c carb type,commensal in mouth and resp tract.People with heart damage(reumatic fever)grows on H.valve damaged by group A strep=subacute endocarditis.Dental work introduces.	Viridians strep.
A-hemolytic,group d strep, diplococci,optochin sensitive,refered to pneumococcus,pyogenic ,gram+,causes 50% of all pneumonias,40%-70% asymptomatic carriers.Thick polysaccharide capsule with 90 types.Identified with Quellung test.	Streptococcus pneumonia.
Mycoplasma pneumonia,gram neg,no cell wall,has cytoplasmic membrane,outer membrane.coccoid,tx with protein synthesis inhibitors(tetracycline,erythromycin)not pcn(no cell wall)Forms fried egg like quality in medium containing nucleic acid and lipids.	Walking pneumonia.
Gram neg,bacilli with vacuoles,fastidious.Tx with Quinolines,polymixins.Infections come from aerosolized water infected with the microbe.Kills amoebas.	Legionnaires Disease.(Legionella pneumophila)
Acid fast,waxy cell envelopes, Mantoux test, tine test, sputum, x-ray to diagnose.Rod shape.Tx with Isoniazid.	Tuberculosis.(Mycobacterium tuberculosis).
Bacterial diseases of the respiratory tract that are gram positive.	S. pneumoniae,S. agalactia, S.pyogenes.
Bacterial diseases of the respiratory tract that are gram negative.	Chlamydia pneumonia,Hemophilus influenza,Neisseria meningitids.
Heart valve and joint damage that occurs several weeks after acute pharyngitis because of immune hypersensitivity.	Rheumatic fever.
A test based on anticapsular antibodies that is used to distinguish the capsular types of S. pneumoniae.	Quellung test.
A rash caused by erythrotoxin secreted by some strains of S pyogenes.	Scarlet fever.
An infective type of endocarditis or inflammation of the heart caused by viridians strep.	Sub acute endocarditis.
Non enveloped,dsDNa -containing viruses for which there are at least 50 serotypes. Icosahedral shape,causes 10-15% of all upper respiratory infections including colds with a fever.	Adenoviruses.
An extremely common and contagious disease caused by Varicella-Zoster virus,which also causes shingles,the recurrent form.	Chicken pox.
An infection transmitted from a pregnant mother with the rubella virus to her baby,esp during the first trimester and can cause serious birth defects.	Congenital rubella syndrome.
Non-enveloped,icosahedral shell surrounds rna genome.,113 serotypes causes about 50% of colds.Spreads via aerosols & fomites.	Rhinovirus.
Viral diseases of the respiratory tract?	Cold,chickenpox,rubella, influenza,measles, mumps,polio.= c chrimmp.
Non enveloped,icosahedral capsid shell sourounds rna genome,infects alimentary canal and invades neurons of the spinal column and causes disease.Transmitted in food and water and infects the adenoids & lymph tissue in intestines or spreads through blood.	Polio virus.Polio myelitis.Leads to paralysis of the arms,legs,diaphram.
A killed vaccine that is injected and prevents the spread of polio virus in the blood stream but not intestinal growth and fecal shedding.	Salk vaccine.
A live attenuated vaccine that is taken orally to induce a secretory IgA response in intestinal tract so future infections are stopped enterically. Stops spread in feces.	Sabine vacine.
A normally mild disease that usually causes rubeola but can cause encephalitis or pneumonia and result in permanent mental retardation, epilepsy, deafness, and death.enveloped capsis,rna genome, causes rubeola(7 day measles),pt with Koplicks spots.	Measles.
A virus that causes inflammation of the parotid gland,mild in children but not adults.enclosed capsid shell,rna genome,often asymptomatic testes can be infected(orchitits).	mumps.
Enveloped capsid,rna genome,2 viral surface proteins(neuraminidase,hemaglutinin)spread via aerosols,changes genetically year to ear.Tx with amantadine(inhibits uncoating),ribavarin(rna polymerase inhibitor),zanarin/relenza(inhibits neuraminidase).	Influenza.
A viral surface protein that attaches the influenza virus to the ciliated epithelial cells in the throat so that the virus can enter and kill cells.	hemagglutitnin.
enveloped capsid shell surrounding rna genome,common name German measles. Last for 3 days.Dangerous when passed to unborn child from its mom.Live attenuated virus.	Rubella virus.
enveloped capsid shell surrounding rna genome,induces cell to cell fusion,virus spread easily in infant ward,pt treated with Ribavirin.	Respiratory syncytial virus.
Koplicks spots,encephalitis in 0.1% and pneumonia in 5%.Rare complication sub acute sclerosing panencephalitis.	measles sysmptoms and possible complications.
Caused by the varicella-zoster virus with varicella primary and zoster recurrent(shingles)with a live attenuated vaccine.	Chickenpox.
Seaweed appearance fungus,also called zygomycetes forsexual reproduction,genera Mucor and Rhizopus,molds with aseptate hyphae,found in soil,causes pulmonary diseases and blood vessel issues for diabetics.broad aseptate hyphae,cultures a fluffy mold.	Phycomycetes.
Encapsulated yeast found in pigeon droppings,causes pneumonia & meningitiscapsule is a antiphagocytic factor,produces urease,must have T cells to fight it.Aids pt suffer 25% deaths from this.	cryptococcus(Filobasidiella neoformans).
Dimorphic,no capsule,causes an infection of the lungs called histoplasmosis,commonly seen in the Ohio-Mississippi valley and grows best in bird manure.	Histoplasmosis.(histoplasmosis capsulatum).
Toxins produced by Aspirgillus flavus that cause cancer especially in the liver where they are degraded.	Aflatoxins.
Fungal balls found in body cavities often as a result of aspergillosis.	Aspirgilloma .
Fungal Pneumonia,fuzzy mold,septate hyphae, can sometimes be found in body cavities as fungal balls in body cavities called aspergilloma.	Aspirgillosis.
A mycotoxin produced by Claviceps purpurea that causes hallucinations and other brain disturbances.	Ergot.
Yeast at body temp,mold in environment. acquired from rotting wood,causes pulmonary infection and can spread to other tissues.	Blastomycosis(Dimorphic) .
Yeast at body temp,mold in the environment ,seen in dry alkaline soils(SW USA- Valley fever California)pulmonary or meningeal,forms spore sack called spherules.	Coccidioidiomycosis.(Dimorphic).
Rna ribosomal gene sequence,mold with some feature like protozoa,biggest cause of death for AIDS pt 50%.No problem for pt with intact immune system.	Pneumocytosis(pneumocytosis jirovecii).
Inflammation of the bladder caused by E. coli.	cystitits.
Inflammation of the stomach.Short helico rods,microaerophile,gram neg,causes ulcers,makes urease to defeat stomach mucous layer so acid damages epithelial cells and bacteria damage and colonize the stomach more easily.this can cause stomach cancer.	Gastritis(Helicobacter pylori).
Inflamation of the stomach and intestinal lining.	Gastroenteritis
Disease produced by a toxin.	Intoxication.
Skin hemorrhage caused by typhoid fever.	Rose spots.
A less severe form of diarrhea.Gram neg rod, zoonosis and human transmission,intracellular pathogen,different serotypes produce different surface antigens and different immune response.Serotypes by lipopolysaccharide antigenic profile.Catch from turtles.	Salmonellosis.
A disease characterized by frequent watery stools that contain mucous and blood.	Bacillary dysentary.
Extremely toxic by botulism so potent that detectable growth need not be present for intoxication.From improperly canned food.	Botulinum toxin.
E. coli bacteria in urine.	Bacteruria.
A animal disease caused by bacterium .Humans infected by handling animals ,meat, or dairy products.	Disease brucellosis caused by bacterium brucella.
A disease caused by the choleragen exotoxin, wich is excreted by Vibrio cholerae.	Cholera.
Rod shaped bacteria that ferment lactose at the proper temperature.	Coliform.
Gram neg rod,human to human spread(fecal oral),intestinal ulcerations with bloody stools,rose spots(skin hemorrhage)and stepladder fever.Symptomatic as well as asymptomatic chronic carriers.	Typhoid fever.(Salmonella typhi)
Comma shaped gram neg rod,well characterized toxin,rice water stools,human and fresh water transmission,massive electrolyte loss,7 pandemics since 1800.	Cholera.
5 f's of choliform transmission.	Feces,flys,food,fingers,fomites.
Short helical rods(comma shaped)microaerophile,poultry products,gastroenteritis in N.America,diarrhea,nausea ,dysentery,Dysentary tx with erythromycin,fever.Polar single flagelum. Enters a viable but not cultureable state andescapes routine detection.	Campylobacteriosis (Campylobacter jejuni).
A food associated illness that is caused by multiple subunit enterotoxin that release a protein toxin and elicits gastroenteritis following ingestion of at least 100000 viable cells and spores.	Toxicoinfection.
A disease caused by enterotoxin secreted by some strains of E. coli.New E.coli enterotoxin in a persons system causes diarrhea. gram neg rod,carried by all mammals,contains endotoxin lipid A of lipopolysaccharide that induces fever,can ferment lactose.	Travelers diarrhea.
A fever that presents with intestinal ulcerations with bloody stools,rose spots, and a stepladder fever:it is caused by Salmonella typhi wich spreads from the symptomatic as well as asysmptomatic chronic carriers.	Typhoid fever.
Gram +, spore forming, soilborne rod,obligate anaerobe.Prevents ACH from stimulating skeletal muscle.Causes intoxication.Infant botulism most frequent type from ingesting spores in honey.Improperly canned food and wounds caused from deep mech injury.	Clostridium botulinum or Botulism.
Gram +taph,short incubation time 4 hours,egg based products at risk(mayo).S aureus strains secrete 1 or more enterotoxins(common cause of food poisoning.5% require fluid replacement,1-6 hour incubation time,no antibiotics recommended.	Staphylococcal food poisoning.S. aureus.
Caused by a local strain of E. coli.Seen when baby first encounters local E. coli strain.	Infantile diarrhea .
Alarge group of bacteria that carryout oxygenic photosynthesis using a system like that present in photosynthetic eucaryotes.	cyanobacteria.
The primary taxonomic group above the kingdom level.	Domain.
Taxonomic groups.	Domain,kingdom,phylum,class,order,family,genus,species.
Cells that have a membrane delimited nucleus and differ in many other ways from prokaryotic cells.	Eukaryotes.
Cells that lack a true membrane enclosed nucleus:	Prokaryotes.
Serological variation found within a species when they differ immunologically.	Serovars.
A population of organisms that descends from a single organism or pure cultural isolate.Modern term is biovars and serovars.	Strain.
Protein synthesis;the process by which the genetic message carried by the mRNA directs the synthesis of polypeptides with the aid on the ribosomes and other cell cell constituents.	Translation.
A base found in rna that replaces thymine and inhabits region of rna that defines a gene.Opposite adenine in rna.	Uracil.
3 overall domains.	Archae,Prokaryotes, eukaryotes.
4 macromolecule types?	Proteins,lipids,polysaccharides,nucleic acids.
The 2nd type of macromolecule;sugars that have been polymerized into long chains of complex carbohydrates.May serve a structural role and provide strength to microbe cell wall and keeps it from breaking open.	Polysaccharides.
The first macromolecule,typically consist of 300-1000 amino acid residues linked by peptide bonds to form a polypeptide chain.	Proteins.
A polynucleotide composed of ribonucleotides joined by phosphodiester bridges.	RNA.
Atype of lipid usefull as targets for antibiotic therapy of fungus because fungi and animal lipids vary.Animals have cholesterol and fungi contain ergosterols.	Sterols
A base that inhabits regions of dna that defines a gene.Opposite adenine.	Thymine.
The 4th type of cellular macromolecule,relatively small and span the membrane of every cell,most contain phosphate .Polar phosphate group face the water on both sides ofthe membrane.Includes waxes,sterols and fats,insoluble.	Lipids
Animal cells contain this kind of lipid?	Sterols.
Fungi contain this kind of lipid?	Ergosterols.
What are the workers of the cell?	Enzymes.
Would an organism that contains 1 million base pairs of dna be more likely to have 1000 or 10,000 genes?	Average gene is 1000 base pairs in length so the organism would likely have 1000 genes.
How do DNA and RNA differ?	DNA is double stranded,has the sugar deoxyribose and the nucleotide thymine.Rna is single stranded,has ribose and has uracil in place of thymine.
A pumping mechanism that runs on the cell's energy resources and uses protein transporters in the membrane to bring desirable chemicals into the cells.	Active transport.
A common morphology of bacteria composed of a rod shaped cell.	Bacillus.
Two to four rings mounted on a rod;they secure the flagellum to the cell envelope.	Basal body.
A covering usually polysaccharide,of the whole cell that makes the cell slippery,preventing white blood cells from capturing it and antibodies from binding it.	Capsule.
All the covering layers of a bacterium,including the cytoplasmic membrane and cell wall.	Cell envelope.
A layer of cell outside the cell membrane that confers rigidity and shape.	cell wall.
A common morphology of bacteria composed of a spherical shaped cell.	Coccus.
The contents within the cytoplasmic membrane.	cytoplasm.
A boundary structure present in all living cells that defines the outside and inside ;is also called the cell membrane or plasma membrane.	cytoplasmic membrane.
Thick spore structures that grow inside cells and are therefore protected from heat,drying,freezing,and harsh living conditions.	Endospores.
The major part of the flagellum that contains long,helical structures made of polymerized protein flagellin.	Filament.
Small,hairlike appendages present on the external surface of many bacteria and usually seen in the hundreds per cell.Attachment factors or holdfast that attach to host cells.	Fimbriae.
Hairlike appendages that allow bacteria to attach to sites for the purpose of growth and motility functions.	Flagella.
Corkscrew shaped polymerized proteins present in filament that are normally several times longer than the entire bacterial cell.	Flagellin.
Polysaccharides or polyphosphates in the cytoplasm that usually provide an energy source and are available when the cell has a special energy need ,also called inclusions.	Granules.
A flexible piece at the proximal end of a filament that can bend to function as a universal joint.	Hook.
The proximal end in the outer half of the membrane on gram negative bacteria that anchors it to the cells.	Lipid a.
A material that composes the outer membrane of 3 layered gram neg bacterial cell walls.	Lipopolysaccharide.
A polysaccharide called glycan that is crossed linked to other polysaccharide molecules by short peptide crossbridges to form a fishnet like structure.	Peptidoglycan.
Small hairlike appendages present on the external surface of many bacteria.	Pili.
Small pieces of DNA that normally only contain a few genes,often for highly specialized functions.	Plasmids.
Enzymes that perform translation; include bacteria and eukaryotes.	Ribosomes.
The most stable form of life.wrapped in multiple layers of peptidoglycan and protein:there may also be other polysaccharide layers.They contain little water.	Spores.
Stain with crystal violet,stains cell purple.	Gram stain step 1.
Fix the crystal violet with iodine so that it aggregates and fixes in place.	Gram stain step 2.
Use alcohol-acetone to wash out purple violet from gram neg bacteria.	Gram stain step 3.
Counterstain with safranin so the gram negative cells are visible.	Gram stain step 4.
two linked cells	diplo.
4 linked cells	tetra.
organized like a grape cluster.	staphylo.
chain of cells.	strepto.
It serves to define the inside and the outside of the cell.It controls what enters and exits the cell.It has many protein transporters in the membrane to bring desirable chemicals into the cell by active transport.	Function of the cell membrane(cytoplasmic membrane).
variable in shape and lack a single characteristic form.	pleomorphic.
Which cell gram pos or gram neg has a thicker peptidoglycan layer?	Gram pos.
what layer does gram pos and gram neg have that is the same.	cytoplasmic membrane.
prokaryotic ribosomes	70 s (1 each of 30s and 50s subunits).
Eukaryotic ribosomes	80s (1 each of 40s and 60s subunits).
Biochemical test,immunological test,genetic test,direct dna,rna,to find organism specific sequences.	4 methods used to identify bacteria (big-d).
3 major components of bacterial flagella.	basal body,the hook, and the filament.
The five organelles contained in microbial eukaryotic cells.	Nuclei,mitochondria,endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus,vacuoles.(MEN GET Viruses).
The defining characteristic of eukaryotic cells	Membrane bound nucleus.
A eukaryotic organelle that is full of toxic chemicals and degradative enzymes.When a phagocyte phagocytoses a microbe it fuses with this organelle so its contents can kill and degrade the microbe.	Lysosome.
A fungus that uses organic material made by other cells.	Heterotrophic fungi.
These fungi obtain nutrients without harming the cells.	Symbiotic fungi.
These fungi obtain nutrients from dead organic material.	Saprobic fungi.
Single roundish cells that divide by forming a new bud on the side of the mother cells.The bud grows until its ready to devide away as a new daughter cell.	Yeast.
Grow in long chains of connected cells that are called hyphae.They are divided into septate and aseptate.	molds.
They are heterotrophic and often seen on dead wood.Often used for food with a slender stem and a rounded head.	Mushrooms.
Made up of the polysaccharide chitin.	Fungal cell walls.
Fuzzy masses of hyphae.	mycelia.
Slime mold, algae,protozoa.	Protist kingdom 3 groups.
Protozoa locomotion apparatus.	Flagellates,ciliates,amoebas,sporozoits.
Unicellular protist that lack photosynthetic ability.They can be identified by there locomotion apparatus,genenral shape and size,number of nuclei,and presence of cyst forms.	Protozoans.
A major part of phytoplankton that produce more o2 than all the earths forest and form the basis of the marine food chain.	Algae.
Cell walls composed of cellulose, the same polysaccharide found in wood.Diatoms produce a silicon structure matrix that settles to the bottom of oceans when they die.	Algae structure.
A type of protozoan that move by crawling using pseudopodia.	Amoebas.
O2 producing free floating masses found in the worlds saline waters;the basis for the marine food chain.	Phytoplankton.
An infectious form produced by sporozoa,a type of protozoan with no appendages.	sporozoit.
The vegetative or growing form of a protozoan during its lifetime.	trophozoite.
Protist,produces spores and grow in fungi habitats,several of them have flagella or pseudopodia.Both cellular and acellular.	slime mold.
Much the same as slime molds except reproductive cells are flagellated.These molds grow into masses of white threads on decaying organic material.The most important member is phytophthora infestans.Caused potatoe blight and destroyed potatoe crops.	Water molds.
3 groups of kingdom protista.	Protozoa,algae,slime molds.
3 types of protozoa locomotion.	Flagella,cilia,pseudopodia.
Contain chlorophyl	chloroplast.
Arthropod vectors.	Fleas, lice,mites,ticks,mosquitos.
Microbes that grow in this arthropods salivary glands are passed to animals it bites.	Mosquito disease transmission.
Small,wingless insects that penetrate the skin and suck the blood of warm blooded animals.Legs claws and teeth are holfast.Transmits trench fever, epidemic typhus,and relapsing fever.	Lice.
Arthropod vector that is the transmitter of Yersinia pestis(plague) and a Rickettsia form of typhus.	Fleas.
Arachnid arthropods which burrow into the skin where the female lays the eggs.Sarcoptes scabiei wich causes rashes in the genital area.Transmitted with human to human contact.	Mites.
Arthropods that attach to and grow on and in the skin.Dermacentor andersoni transmits Rickettsia rickettsii,the cause of Rocky mountain Spotted fever.Ixodes scapularis transmits bacterial spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi(lymes disease).	Ticks.
The simplest lifeform on earth.Made up of protein and 1 type of nucleic acid(dna or rna)typically have only 2 to 50 genes compared to othe rlife forms.Must have a host factory.	Virus.
Cell killing,round up,inclusion body's,synctia formation.	Cytopathic effects of viruses.
Cells killed by viruses growth in a area.We may observe a plaque or a hole in the tissue cells were cell death took place.Cytopathic effect.	Cell killing.
Cytopathic effect can be observed with a microscope and is when virions cause the cells to no longer adhere tightly to the bottom of a petri dish.must be observed by microscope.	Round up.
Microscopically observable dark areas of virus particles accumulating.Cytopathic effect.	Inclusion bodys.
When viruses cause cells to fuse together into giant cells.Cytopathic effect.	Synctia formation.
Viruses that can lyse a cell.	Proviruses.
The process by which a virion attaches to a host cell.	Adsorbtion.
Protein on the surface of a virion that attaches to a specific receptors on the surfaces of host cells.	Attachment factor.
The nucleic acid and its capsid taken as a unit.	Nucleocapsid.
Surface feature on potential host cells to which a virion attach.	Receptor.
Viruses that carry out transcription in reverse.	Retrovirus.
Dna polymerase that reverses the normal transcription process by transcribing RNA into DNA.	Reverse trascriptase.
Any virus with its appropriate coating layer is called .	Virion
Viral life cycle	attachment, penetration,uncoating ,nucleic acid replication,protein synthesis,self assembly ,release.
Naked viruses usually mediated by endocytosis(trojan horse strategy)and enveloped viruses by membrane fusion.	Virus penetration.
Internalized nucleocapsid is uncoated by host enzymes(lysosomal)for enveloped viruses and cytoplasmic proteases for naked viruses.	Virus uncoating
How do dna viruses replicate.	In the host nucleus where the host synthesizing machinery resides.
Dna viruses have at least how many proteins for replication and what is there function?	1 whose function is to subvert the host replication enzyme to switch from host cell replication to viral dna replication.
What must rna viruses do to replicate?	They must code for there own rna polymerase because the host cell does not have an enzyme that will recognize an rna template,Rna viruses replicate in host cytoplasm.
Virus protein synthesis?	Virus use host cell translation machinery in the host cytoplasm for protein synthesis.
Viral self assembly?	Viral proteins are constructed to have natural binding sites for viral nucleic acid binding to nucleic acids the same way opposite poles of magnets attract.The proteins also bind to other proteins in this energy free self assembly.
Viral release?	Naked virus=lysing. Enveloped virus=bud or push out through the cell membrane and acquire a coating of this membrane that serves as there envelope.Then produces a protein that inserts material of a new host cell into the cell for attach factor.
Rashes,cell killing,plaque, round up,inclusion bodies, syncytia formations.	cytopathic effects.
How does a bacteriophage penetrate the host cell wall.	In addition to attachment factors they use to adhere to the host cell,they also have a needle like stylet that they push through the bacterial envelope and inject there nucleic acid into the host cell.
Capsid which have the shape of a regular polyhedron having 20 equilateral triangular faces & 12 corners.	Icosahedral.
Virus characteristics.	It depends on structural features,general shape and size,naked or enveloped,host range,dna,or rna.
What part of the envelope come from the host cell and what part comes from the virus?	The membrane is from the host,the attachment proteins are from the virus.
What type of molecule in an enveloped virus is needed for attachment to the host cell?	A viral attachment protein that protrudes outside of the virus envelope is needed for attachment to the host cell.
Adsorption of a virus to a cell depends on what specific viral and cellular components?	Viral attachment proteins and a cell receptor.
2 types of viral penetration?	Endocytosis and membrane fusion.
Where and how does viral uncoating take place?	It is the removal of the viral capsid protein by cellular enzymes in the cell cytoplasm.
Where does dna and rna replication take place for viruses.	Cell nucleous for dna and cell cytoplasm for rna.
Where does viral translation take place?	It occurs in the host cytoplasm.
How does the assembly of intact virions occur.	Proteins from the coating bind to each other and to the proper nucleic acids.
Lytic viruses vs lysogenic virus.	Respectively,one breaks the host cell open and the other enters the cell where their dna integrates into the host cell and becomes part of it, then divides with the cell.If host becomes sick they lyse the cell and escape.
What changes occur during transformation in regards to viruses?	Viruses cause cells to keep growing uncontrollably and pile up and form a tumor.
Why is tumorigenesis only associated with dna viruses or retroviruses.	Only occurs when a cells genes are altered to cause uncontrollable cell division.Only dna can intergrate into the cells chromosomes because the chromosome is dna.
Spongiform encephalopathy in humans.	Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease.
Another name for Spongiform encephalopathy in humans.	Kuru
The smallest known replicating agents:they do not have dna,rna,or nucleic acids.Means proteinaceous infectious agent.They are proteins that cause copies of themselves to form.Causes Spongiform encephalopathy in humans and scrapie in sheep.	Prions.
Mammal gene codes for a brain protein that on rare occasions can fold in an unnatural fashion.When folded this way the protein interacts with normal copies of itself and causes them to fold the same way a form of autocatalyst.	Prion replication.
Six most abundant elements in microbes.	C,O,N,H,P,S. Nchops.
The six most abundant types of molecules in living bacterium.	H2O+macromolecules of protein,polysachharides,nucleic acids,and lipids.
Can use carbon dioxide or methane from the air as a source of carbon.	Autotroph.
A bacteria who's carbon must be in a organized form such as a sugar.	Heterotroph.
A mutation that occurs in bacterium so that it can no longer use a given vitamin and that vitamin must be added to the growth medium.Cells that carry mutations that change the phenotype.	Auxotroph.
Organism that requires vitamins or similar nutrients are called fastidious organisms.	Fastidious organisms.
Bacteria that are photosynthetic like plants.	Photoautotrophs.
Grow in high salt environments.	Halophiles.
Organisms that can produce methane gas from carbon dioxide and hydrogen.	Methanogens.
Bacteria that do not require either sunlight or organic nutrients but rather use minerals and gasses from the air and derive there energy from chemicals found in rock.	Chemoautotrophs.
Bacteria that have been growing at boiling temperature and even above.	Extreme thermophiles.
Bacteria that grow with or without o2.	facultative anaerobes.
Bacteria that grow best at warm temps.	mesophiles.
Bacteria that require reduced o2 levels.	microaerophiles.
Where organisms need each other for a high quality of life.	Mutualistic symbiosis.
Bacteria that require the presence of 02 to grow.	Obligate aerobes.
The pressure caused by water attempting through a membrane by osmosis.	Osmotic pressure.
A symbiotic relationship that is beneficial to 1 organism and harmful to another.	Parasitism.
Psychrophiles.	Bacteria that grow best at cold temps.12 Celsius or lower.
Psychrotrophs.	Cold adapted mesophiles that prefer temperatures closer to 37c for optimal growth but can adapt to cooler temps and occasionally spoil food.
Love acid environments.	Acidophiles.
Love alkaline environments.	alkalophiles.
Archae rather than bacteria and grow best in 55 degree Celsius.	Thermophiles.
Cannot grow at high temps but are not killed in a high temp for a short time.	Thermoduric.
When total success of both organisms is more than what would have resulted had the organisms grown independently.	synergism.
When organism A helps organism B.Organism A is unaffected either for good or bad by organism B.	Mutualistic symbiosis.
A mutually harmful relationship.	Antagonism.
After carbon the most abundant element is?	oxygen.
Is a medium generally used for the isolation of human pathogens form body sites like the throat or for the cultivation of fastidious bacteria.	Blood agar.
Small samples of a culture.	aliquots.
Anabolism.	The use of the energy and building blocks left by catabolism to produce new cellular materials,such as macromolecules.
Binary fission.	The process by which cells divide and form 2 progeny cells that are equal to the original cell.
The breakdown of complex materials into building blocks or energy that the cell can utilize for synthesis,making more cellular chemicals.	Catabolism.
The process in which cells divide and form 2 progeny cells that are equal to the original.	Cell division.
The use of salts found in rock as an energy source,employed by some bacteria.	Chemosynthetic metabolism.
When bacteria double in number once every constant unit of time.1 bacterium becomes 2.Then 2 becomes 4.Then 4 becomes 8 etc.	Exponential growth.
Biological catalyst that the cells use to convert some molecules into other molecules at normal body temperatures.	Enzymes.
Fermentation.	The production of any product other than carbon dioxide or water from catabolism;originally referred to the process of incomplete catabolism of sugars to produce alcohol in wines.
Glycolysis.	A process in where glucose is transported to the inside of a cell and oxidized.
Krebs cycle.	The process in which pyruvate is further disassembled ,using o2 to degrade the carbon completely to carbon dioxide,water,atp,and energy containing electrons that are passed on to the electron transport chain.
The transfer of electrons to oxygen coupled with the synthesis of atp.	Oxidative phosphorylation.
The chemical produced by a chemical reaction.	Product.
The product of glycolysis.	Pyruvate.
Chemicals involved in a chemical reaction.	Reactants.
The chemical process that consistently leads to a chemical change.	Reaction.
The passage of electrons to oxygen to produce water.	Respiration.
Chemicals involved in a chemical reaction.	Substrates.
Bacterial growth curve.	Lag(no growth),Log (exponential growth),Stationary(dividing and dying at same rate),death.
When an enzyme uses the energy found in ATP to construct a molecule of higher potential energy than its substrates.	Glucose + fructose + ATP---sucrose + H2O +ADP +Pi.
The breakdown of an organism because of its own purpose and mechanism.Some bacteria do this in order to spread.	Autolysis.
What information does a turbidity assay yield?	It gives information as to how many total cells living and dead are in a sample by use of a spectrometer.
The amount of heat needed to start a chemical reaction.Enzymes can dramatically reduce this.	Activation energy.
3 major pathways of catabolism in organisms.	Glycolysis,Krebs cycle,and electron transport.
How many atp produced by glycolysis.	Produce 2 atp.
Tricarboxylic acid cycle (Krebs cycle)/electron transport number of atp produced.	30 atp.
Two possible final electron acceptors in anaerobic respiration.	Nitrate and sulfate.
The transfer RNA binding site for codon.	Anticodon.
Cistrons.	Individual genes in an operon.
Codon.	Nucleic acid letters read in triplet so that each possible 3-letter word codes for a specific amino acid. Acts as a blueprint for how protein will be organized.
Coupling.	The simultaneous synthesis of RNA and protein.
Metabolic pathway.	The series of enzymes needed to complete a task and produce an end product,such as an amino acid.
A cotranscribed gene cluster.In bacteria and archae, mRNA may include a single gene but often includes a cluster of 2 to 10 genes and if cotranscribed is called?Not found in eukaryotes.	Operon.
Pathway.	A set of genes used for a complete task.
Polysomes.	Multiple ribosomes held together by the mRNA thread;indicative of very active protein synthesis.
Translates mRNA into amino acid chains.	Ribosomal RNA.
The enzyme responsible for transcription.Used to produce the mRNA copy of each gene.	RNA polymerase.
The transcription of a DNA molecule into a mRNA molecule.	Transcription.
Brings amino acids to the appropriate site for addition during protein elongation.	Transfer RNA.
Three ribonucleotides in a row;1 codon.Codes for 1 amino acid.	Triplet.
Protein synthesis or the process by which mRNA is changed from the language of nucleotides to the language of amino acids.	Translation.
Value of operons?	Normally have functions that are related such as all the genes required to synthesize a amino acid.
Once a mRNA synthesized,ribosomal 30s and 50s subunits bind at start site tRNa bearing correct amino acids for mRNA codon bindin order until termination codon reached.	Initiation of translation.
It is the simultaneous synthesis of RNA&protein that occurs in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes.	Coupled transcription and translation.
Haploid.	Describes organisms such as prokaryotes with 1 copy of each chromosome.
DNA coding sequence plus upstream control sequences(regulatory regions) for a single protein.The sequence of pairs in a gene comprises the information that allows the cell to encode the functional protein or RNA molecule.	Gene
Have 2 copies of each chromosome like eukaryotes.	Diploid
1920s discovered that genes can functionally affect the character of cells and that genes can be transferred from 1 cell to another.	Frederick Griffith.
Proved that the bacterial substance that cause transformation was DNase sensitive which provided strong evidence that transfer of dna was needed for capsule production .	Oswald Avery
DNA replication ends how?	It continues until the two bidirectional forks meet on opposite side of circular DNA.
Number of genes in average bacterium.	5000 genes.
Number of genes in average human cell.	50,000 genes
Used in gene therapy to deliver a gene with proper activity to host cells that need the gene.	Viral vector
The active combination of an aporepressor and a corepressor.	Active repressor complex.
An inactive repressor protein.	Aporepressor.
A protein that causes repression by activating an aporepressor.	Corepressor.
A molecule that begins gene expression,such as a source of energy.	Inducer.
Genes that are normally not expressed unless an appropriate energy source is available in the environment.	Inducible genes.
The process in which an inducible gene is activated and expressed.	Induction.
An inducible gene in E. coli that requires lactose for expression.	Lac operon.
A binding site on DNA that helps to regulate the expression of a given gene through interactions with promoters and repressors.	Operator.
A DNA segment that regulates the expression of a given gene.	Promoter.
Systems that can be turned off at the transcription level when its advantageous to the cell.	repressible systems.
A protein that regulates the expression of a given gene.	Repressor.
Regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes.Inducible systems and repressible systems.Bacteria normally regulate gene expression at?	Done at the transcription level.
How is the lac operon induced?	Lactose combines with the lack repressor to inactivate it. RNA polymerase can then bind to the promoter and transcribe the lac operon.
How is the tryptophan operon repressed?	Tryptophan binds to the trp operon aporepressor to form a active complex,which binds to the trp operator and prevents rna polymerase binding and transcribing.
Feedback inhibition.	Is associated with repressible operons were the end product of the operon pathway makes a complex with the aporepressor to inhibit transcription.
Inducible systems?	Turn on systems and have gross control.
repressible systems.	Turn off systems and have fine control.
Proteases?	Rid the cell of unwanted proteins.
A test which seeks to find which chemicals cause mutation.	Ames test.
A system that is mutationally always turned on and cannot be turned off.	Constitutive system.
Mutations involving the loss off numbers of amino acids not divisible by 3 that cause subsequent amino acids to shift back,garbling the rest of the chain.	Frame shift deletion.
Mutations caused by man made mutagens.	Induced mutations.
Mutations involving the deletion of numbers of amino acids divisible by 3.	In frame deletions.
Mutations involving the insertion of amino acids.	Insertions.
A cell than can no longer utilize lactose.	lactose auxotroph.
Mutations resulting in an early stop codon.	Nonsense mutations.
A mutation in which part of the DNA sequence is moved to a new location.	Rearrangements.
Mutational control that occurs outside the affected structural genes.	Regulatory mutation.
Mutations that occur by mistake in DNA synthesis or by exposure to ultraviolet rays.	Spontaneous mutations.
When 1 or more nucleotides are erroneously replaced by 1 or more other nucleotides.	Substitution mutations.
Bob ate the big redcat	Wild type mutation example.
Substitution mutation example.	bxb ate the big red cat.
Nonsence mutation example.	Bob ate the.
oba tet heb igr edc at.	Frame-shift deletion mutation example.
bob aig red cat.	In frame deletion mutation example.
boY Zba tet heb igr edc at	Frame shift insertion mutation example.
In frame insertion mutation example.	bob atX YZe the big red cat.
bob aig red cTE THE Bat	Rearrangement mutation example.
Genotype	Genetic sequence of the cell.
Process that cause spontaneous genetic changes.a heritable change in the base sequence of DNA.	Mutations.
Bacteria equipped with the necessary transport proteins for transformation.	Competant bacteria.
Direct transfer of DNA from 1 bacterium to another.It is the most common gene transfer mechanism.Donor contains a plasmid called the f-factor that codes for the pilus and other genes needed for DNA copy and transfer.	Standard Conjugation.
A plasmid that codes for the pilus and other genes needed for DNA copy and transfer in conjugation.	F Factor.
Cells lacking the f factor.	F - cells.
Cells carrying an F factor.	F + cells.
Described transduction by phages that having absorbed the entire bacterial chromosome of a host cell ,can transfer any gene from the donor bacgterium.	Generalized transduction.
Occurs when the f-factor integrates into the donor bacterial chromosome: may transmit the entire donor chromosome and finally the integrated f- factor sequences if attached long enough.	High frequency recombinant.
An attachement site or ligand for specific receptors on bacteria that lack an f-factor.	Pillus tip.
Describes transduction by phages that always pick up just 1 area of the donor bacterial chromosomeand can ,therefore,transduce a limited number of bacterial genes.	Specialized transduction.
Particles that contain bacterial DNA rather than phage DNA:may later transfer this DNA into the DNA of another bacterium	Transducing particles.
A bacterial gene transfer mechanism in which a phage carries 1 or more genes from 1 bacterium to another	Transduction.
Bacterial gene transfer wherein the bacteria are transformed into a different genotype. Competent bacteria are the only ones who can move this negatively charged DNA across the cell membrane and incorporate it.	Transformation.
Gram neg bacteria can transmit there genes to?	Gram positive bacteria.
All of these 3 gene transfer processes occur widely in nature and cause bacteria to take on new genotypes with a wide variety of prototypes.	Conjugation,transformation,and transduction.
Aciduric bacteria.	Bacteria,such as helicobacter pylori,that are resistant to acid
Antiseptics	Milder disinfectants that tend to be used on human flesh.
Aseptic.	Without contamination.
Flash pasteurization.	Process of pasteurization at 71.5 c for 15 seconds
Pasteurization.	A process that heats food, such as milk, to a high enough temp to kill most vegetative cells;usually achieved by 30 min at 63 c.
A process of pasteurizing at 82 c for 3 seconds.	Ultrapasteurization.
Alcohol kills by?	Denatures proteins and dissolves membrane lipids.
Iodine kills by?	Oxidizes proteins.
Phenol kills by?	Denatures proteins, dissolves membranes.
Ethylene oxide kills by?	Oxidizes protein and DNA.
Hydrogen Peroxide kills by?	Oxidizes protein.
Cationic detergents kill by?	Dissolves membrane lipids.
Radiation kills by?	Destroys DNA.
Steam/Boiling kills by?	Denatures protein.
Incineration kills by?	Converting organic matter to carbon dioxide and water molecules.
135 c for 2 seconds often used inflavored milk products.	Ultrahigh temperature pasteurization.
A form of sterilization that does not involve heat or chemical reactions so it is good for soluble materials(enzymes and antibiotics) and it is a good way to sterilize gssses.	Ultrafiltration.
This disinfectant works better if mixed with 30% of its volume as water.	Alcohol.
Antibiotics that cause bacteria to incorrectly read codons.Targets protein synthesis,cidal,can cause deafness.	Aminoglycosides.
A broad range derivative of pcn whose modification allows it to penetrate the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria and kill them.	Ampicillin.
Antibacterials that inhibit the formation of peptide bonds.Targets protein synthesis,static,depresses the immune system.	Chloramphenicol.
A kind of polymixin that is tolerated quite well by human membranes and ,therefore,used internally and extensively.	Ciproflaxin.
A type of antibiotic resistant assay ,called the e test that allows one to determine the the minimum inhibitory concentration of antibiotics being tested.Quantitative rather than qualitative.	Epsilometer test.
Erythromycin.	Antibacterials which inhibit the movement of the peptidyl-tRNA to prevent the addition of amino acids
Antibiotics that interfere with membrane transport and are used against gram neg organisms:usually used topically because of toxicity to human membranes. Cidal.	Polymixins.
Antibiotics that act against bacterial DNA synthesis.	Quinolines.
An antibiotic that inhibits bacterial RNA synthesis.static, can cause hepatitis.	Rifampin.
drugs that inhibit the synthesis of the vitamin folic acid from paraaminobenzoic acid.Has a highselective toxicity for bacteria, fungi, and parasites.	Sulfa.
Antibacterials that inhibit tRNA binding.Targets protein synthesis,static,can cause graying of developing teeth.	Tetracycline.
Alexander Fleming discovered ?Targets cell wall,10% of people are allergic .	Penicillin.
Antibiotics?	Anti-life compounds.
Antibiotic who's focus is on specific genera or species to target more effectively single bacterial types.	Narrow spectrum antibiotics.
Antibiotics that can inhibit a large genera and species of microorganisms but will also kill normal floras(commensals)of the GI and GU tract and this can lead to superinfection.	Broad spectrum antibotics.
Targets cell wall, cidal,very toxic.	Vancomycin
An enzyme produced by bacteria to degrade pcn.	B- lactamase.
Impregnated antibiotics in paper disk diffuse into a Mueller-Hinton agar plate and inhibit the growth of susceptible bacteria.	Kirby-Bauer test.
Antibiotic is serially diluted in two fold increments into several tubes of bacteria standardized to the same density to determine how little antibiotic is required to stop bacterial growth.	Tube dilution test.
The lowest toxic dose of an antibiotic divided by the minimum effective therapeutic dose.	Therapeutic index.
Natural sources of antibiotics.	Bacteria from the soil,water and molds.These organisms produce them to inhibit the growth of other organisms.
4 target sights for antibiotic action besides the cell wall.	The function of the 70s ribosome in translation activity,inhibition of bacterial rna synthesis,bacterial DNA synthesis,disruption of the cell membrane.
Noted mechanism in tetracycline resistance.	Bacteria obtain a gene that pumps the coumpound from inside the cell to outside the cell.
Ways to reduce antibiotic resistance.	reduce used in animal feed,discourage use in humans,give more than 1 simultaneously to completely eliminate infection as needed.
Microbes are grown in broth in tubes. The lowest antimicrobial concentration that inhibits microbial growth is the mic.	Minimum inhibitory concentration (mic).
A disease with visible symptoms.	Clinical disease.
An integral part of the microbe that is a common virulence factor.Realeased when the cell is lysed.	Endotoxins.
Enzymes secreted by organisms.	Exoenzymes
A toxin secreted from the microbe and a common virulence factor.	Exotoxin
A pathogen that survives in humans by characteristic virulence factors that allow it evade phagocytic cells that would otherwise destroy it.	Extracellular pathogen.
Toxins or enzymes that cause red blood cells to lyse and release their contents,which then become available to the pathogen as nutrient sources.	Hemolysins.
Increased number of white blood cells.	Leukocytosis.
Reduced numbers of white blood cells.	Leukopenia.
Actively growing bacteria in the blood.	Septicemia.
An infection caused by toxins spreading through the blood.	Toxemia.
A virus in the blood.	Viremia.
The microbial chemical factors that are required for or important in establishing disease.	Virulence factors.
Have developed virulence factors that allow them to survive even inside phagocytic cells.They have the ability to escape phagocytes.	Intracellular pathogens.
Publishes the morbidity and mortality weekly report,investigates when a new epidemic or disease occurs and determines what measures need to be taken, and is very concerned about communicable diseases.	The Centers for Disease Control.
Mouth ,nose, GI tract cuts in the skin, mosquito bites,and the placenta.	Human portals of entry.,
Infections that are normally non pathogenic but can infect those that are immunocomprimised.	Opportunistic infections.
Ability to infect despite the host resistance.	Virulence.
An exoenzyme that functions to destroy host connective tissue,which facilitates bacterial spreading.	Hyaluronidase.
Tubercle bacilli,herpes simplex,hiv,hep b,epstein-barr.	Common microbes that become latent.
Highly communicable.	Contagious
Involves the induction of a specific immune response that is remembered,which provides for long term immunity.	Acquired immunity.
A pathway of the complement system beginning with C3 that is believed to be very important in preventing infections before antibody production has time to occur.	Alternative pathway.
Leukocytes,or white blood cells in the lungs.	Alveolar macrophages.
The principle nonphagocytic cells of innate immunity.Enhance inflammatory response by release of histamine and related chemicals by causing inflammation.This allows phagocytic cells to gain entry and increase the temperature to improve efficiency.	Basophils.
Chemotactic factors.	Chemotactic factors created by the classical pathway that recruit or attract phagocytic cells to the site of infection.
The 1st component,C1, binds to bacterial-bound antibodies and becomes activated so that it causes binding and activation of other components:C4,C2,C3,&C5 in that order. C3A and C5A cleave free to act as chemotactic factors that recruit phagocyctes.	Classical pathway.
A special set of proteins that circulates throughout the body and binds to bacteria.	Complement.
A process in which complement circulates throughout the body and binds to bacteria bound antibodies or to bacterial polysaccharides to form MAC attack and produce a pore that allows lysis.Called as such because the proteins act in a sequential order.	Complement cascade.
Small chemicals secreted by 1 cell as a form of communication or signalling to other cells.	Cytokines.
Phagocytes process of exiting the blood stream and squeezing between vascular endothelial cells	Diapedesis.
The principle nonphagocytic cells of innate immunity.	Eosinophiles.
A type of immunity that includes physical(intact skin and mucous membranes),biological(skin secretions and other related products,and chemical(complement,inflammation,and fever)barriers.	Innate immunity.
Small proteins released by infected macrophages,fibroblast,and t cells to alert neighboring cells	Interferons.
proteins that sequester iron to prevent adequate nutritional availability for microbes.	Iron binding proteins.
White blood cells.	Leukocytes.
A type of white blood cell comprising about 8% of the average count,appearing in many tissues,such as lung liver,and skin cells.	Macrophages.
Cells that are found in tissues and appear to have identical functions to those of basophils. The primary cause of allergic reaction when they over respond and over stimulate with histamine to toxic levels.	Mast cells.
A complex that forms a pore in the bacterial membrane, resulting in leakage,lysis, and death of the microbe.	Membrane attack complex.
Neutrophils.(PMN)	Cells whose nuclei stain with a neutral dye.
Another name for C3B,which includes a receptor for phagocytic polymorphonuclear leukocytes to bind and subsequently ingest opsonized particles.Literally means "prepare to eat".	Opsonin.
White blood cells that function to engulf and digest foreign matter;they account for 55% of all white blood cells.They ingest opsonized particles(C3B).Also called neutrophils.	PMN,s or polymorphonuclear leukocytes.
The principle nonphagocytic cells of innate immunity(along with basophils).Release toxins that are important to overcoming worms and other parasites that are to large for phagocytes to ingest.	Eosinophils
Before the various kinds of phagocytic cells were characterized the whole system was called by this name.	Reticuloendothelial system.
Skin,Mucous membranes,ciliated epithelial cells,fluid flow(saliva,tears ,urine),Bodily secretions(lysozyme and iron binding proteins),chemical barriers(complement,inflamation,fever).	Seven natural barriers to infection.
Intact skin and mucous membranes,biological barriers(skin secretions and other related products)chemical barriers(complement,inflammation,fever)	Five factors of the bodys innate immunity that reduces infection.
Binds to bacterial bound antibodies and activates.	C1,C4,C2.
Function of C3?	Cleaves C3A(Attractant) off and leaves C3B(opsonin binding behind).C3A is a chemotactic factor which recruits phagocytic cells to the site of infection.
Function of C5?	Cleaves C5A(Attractant)off and leaves C5B(binding) behind.C5A is a chemotactic factor which recruits phagocytic cells to the site of infection.
Also called monocytes in the blood stream,are 8% of the leukocytes and are present in many tissues.(Kupffer cells in liver,dendritic cells in skin).Called monocytes until they reach tissue.Secrete cytokines: interferon,tumor necrosis factor,complement.	Macrophages.
Complement proteins C6,C7,C8,C9,.Forms a pore through the bacterial through the bacterial membrane so that leakage, lysis,and death of the microbe result.	Membrane attack complex or "MAC attack".
Starts with C3 binding directly to certain microbial polysaccharides. Believed to be very important in preventing infections before antibody production has had time to occur.People deficient in C3 have no classical or alternative pathways.	Alternative pathway.
Enhance inflammatory response by release of histamine and related chemicals.This allows phagocytes to gain entry and increase the temperature to improve efficiency.	Basophils
Act identical to basophils and live in tissue.	Mast Cells.
The Phagocytes recognize C3A and C5A near a site of infection and adhere to blood vessel walls near it.	Step 1 of phagocytosis.
The phagocytes use diapedesis to squeeze between cells that form vessel walls.	Step 2 of phagocytosis.
Phagocyctes migrate by amoeboid movement toward the higher concentration of C3A and C5A.	Step 3 of phagocytosis.
The phagocytes ingest the particle into a membrane bag or phagosome inside the phagocytic cell.	Step 4 of phagocytosis.
The phagosome fuse with lysosome to form a phagolysosome so the lysosomal chemicals and enzymes kill,digest ,and ingest the microbe.	Step 5 of phagocytosis.
It is found in all body secretions and it degrades cell walls.	Lysozyme.
For what do PMN's and macrophages both have receptors?	They both have receptors for IgG and opsonin (C3B) component of complement.
Conditions which inhibit phagocytes.	Low ph environments,poorly oxygenated tissue, and fluid filled spaces.
What host response do both basophils and mast cells stimulate.	They stimulate the inflammation response.They are responsible for allergic reactions byu over release of histamine.
Called active vaccination,the active prevention of diseases in a potential host;usually provides lifelong immunity.	Active immunization
The process wherein antibody molecules crosslink bacteria or other microbes so that large aggregates of microbes can be formed.	Agglutination.
A category of people with high levels of IgE and several resultant allergies.	Atopic.
Antibody producing cell.Differentiate into plasma and memory cells which produce antibodies once activated by an endogenous or exogenous antigen.Mature but naive cells display receptors on their surface that recognize unique non-self antigens.	B-lymphocyte.
Immunity conferred by white blood cells,especially T cells.	Cell mediated immunity.
A process in Wherein B and T cells are deleted because they recognize themselves as AGs early in a persons life.	Clonal deletion.
The part of the antibody amino acid chain that does not change.	Constant region.
T cells that express CD8 protein on the surface;cells kill virally infected cells and may cause tissue graft rejection.	Cytotoxic T cells.
A step in allergic reactions wherein cells release histamine and other chemicals that cause allergic reaction.	Degranulate.
An amino acid recognized by antibodies.Each antibody recognizes just 1 epitope.	Epitope.
Fragment antigen binding.	The portion of the antibodys molecule's amino acid chain that contains the antigen binding sites.
Small chemicals that fit into the antibody binding sites.	Haptens.
Refers to antibodies that stay in the fluid part of the blood.	Humoral immunity
When the IgE antibodies are already bound before type 1 Hypersensitivity occurs so it occurs immediately.	Immediate hypersensitivity.
Diseases that occur because complexes of antibodies and antigens are not digested well,get filtered through the kidney,and cause inflammation.They stick to blood vessel and when they are destroyed this damages host tissue.	Immune complex diseases.
Immunogen.	A b cell stimulating antigen.
Antibodies proteins that have been isolated from the blood.	Immunoglobulin
A hall mark of acquired immunity,the extent to which contact with foreign material stimulates immunity.	Inducibility.
A subset of cytokines made by Leukocytes.	Interleukins.
Naturally occurring antibodies.	Isoagglutinins.
A subset of leukocytes essential to acquired immunity and responsible for specifically recognizing foreign antigens.	Lymphocytes.
Chemicals ,like histamine,released by cell granules and responsible for triggering an allergic reaction.	Mediators.
A hallmark of acquired immunity,the tendency that subsequent exposure to a given antigen will result in faster and greater response to the identical foreign materials.	Memory.
Daughter cells created on the event of B cell binding with antigens;essentially identical to there parent cells.	Memory cells.
The process in which the fc portion of the antibody changes configuration such that a specific receptor on the phagocyte binds them tightly.	Opsonization.
A type of immunization,but not vaccination,wherein specific antibodies are transferred from 1 individual to another suspected of recently having been exposed to the same microbe.	Passive immunization.
A toxic protein secreted by cytotoxic t cells that opens channels or holes in infected cells and kills them so that these cells discontinue production of microbes.	Perforin.
Daughter cells created on the event of B cells binding with antigens;Cells start secreting antibodies of the same type that originally bound the antigen.	Plasma cells.
An antibody that binds to human antibodies.	Secondary antibody.
The early exposure which leads to IgE antibody binding to cells,causing sensitivity to a particular antigen.	Sensitization.
A specific surface receptor on T lymphocytes that is used to recognize foreign materials.	T cell receptor.(TCR)
A subset of T cells that recognizes specific antigens and causes proliferation of other immune cells.HIV Virus attacks and kills these cell and T helper cells express cd4.	T helper cells (TH)
A type of lymphocyte that leaves the bone marrow and travels to the thymus for maturation.Have a specific surface receptor for recognizing foreign antigens(TCR)that are not antibodies.Subsets include T helper,T suppressor, and cytotoxic T cells.	T lymphocyte.
T cells that express CD8 protein on the surface;these cells dampen an immune proliferation response so that it stops when an adequate level is reached. Express CD8 and also called cytotoxic T cells which kill virally infected cells.	T suppressor cells.(TS)
Antibody-secreting cells and memory B cells are both formed in response to protein antigens.	T dependent response.
Plasma Cells are produced to make antibodies in response to polysaccharide antigens,but no memory cells are formed;this,thereforer,does not yield long term immunity.	T-Independent response.
Refers to the way the immune system learn to ignore self antigens.	Immune tolerance.
The antigen binding sites on the amino acid chain of an antibody molecule that are extremely variable.	Variable regions.
An accurate method of identifying viral proteins in a host.Can be more accurate than complement fixation,agglutination and precipitation,fluorescent antibody assays,and ELISA.	Western blot analysis.
3 hallmarks of acquired immunity.	Specificity,inducibility,Memory. (SIM)
Are specifically able to recognize non self antigens.	Lymphocytes.
Another name for T suppressor cell that express CD8 and kill virally infected cells as well as dampening an immune response.	Cytotoxic T cells.
CD4 to CD8 ratio?	Two to one ratio.
Plasma cells survival time?	weeks or months.
Memory cell survival time?	More than 20 years.
Start secreting soluble antibodies of the same type that originally bound the antigen as B cell receptors.	Plasma cells.
Memory cells:	Identical to first b-cell but in large numbers.May last for over 20 years and become part of the memory of the acquired immune response.
Lymphocyte stimulation.	APC=(macrophage) presents small pieces of antigen on macrophage cell surface along with MHC2. T helper binds to Ag fragments and is stimulated by IL1 from macrophage,T helper secretes IL2. Naive B or T see Ag and IL2 and proliferate.
Have a y structure with 4 protein chains.2 long heavy chains and 2 light short chains with fab(fragment antigen binding) region on each.	Antibodies.
Y heavy chain,2 binding sites.Most abundant in blood,longest half life(21 days),crosses the placenta from mother to baby,protective for the 1st 3-6 months of life.	IgG
S heavy chain,2 binding sites,found on the surface of B cells(Ag receptor).	IgD
A heavy chain,2 binding sites in blood 4 in secretions.In secretions (2 y are linked at the fc end by a j chain + secretory piece)Most abundant Ig in whole body.Last about 4 weeks.	IgA
E heavy chain,2 binding sites,very little found in the blood,bound to basophils and mast cells.	IgE
U heavy chain,10 binding sites,also has a j chain,a single y version is found on the surface of b cells.Only one to appear in T independent antigens.Mostly degraded after 2 to 3 weeks .	IgM
Order of antibody appearance?	IgM,IgG,IgA,IgE,IgD.
Complement fixation and antibodies.	When IgG or IgM bind an Ag they expose a site in the fc region that initiates a binding of complement proteins called complement fixation.Complement is a cascade of protein factors that leads to extracellular killing of microbial Ags by creating holes .
Precipitation?	Does not occur in the body but in the laboratory by way of centrifuge.It is a convenient lab tool to identify the formation of smaller aggregates with antibodies.
Agglutination.	Occurs in the body.It is the cross link of bacteria or other microbes together.These large aggregates are more easily sought out and destroyed by phagocytes than are the smaller Ab-Ag complexes.
Florescent antibody assay.	The addition of florescent chemicals to Ab molecules.Ab that bind to Ag are separated by centrifuge from the unbound Ab and the Ab/Ag complexes are quantified by seeing how much florescent light the sample emits.
ELISA	Binds an enzyme that breaks 1 color down into 2 (1 colored 1 not)to Ab molecules.The amount of Ab bound to an Ag is attached to a plastic well and the amount of the Ag present is determined by measuring how much color is formed in the well.
Neutralization reactions.	Drawing the pt. blood and allowing it to coagulate and then recovering the liquid portion of the serum .Serum is then added to a known quantity of influenza virus and allowed to bind to virions. Used to measure how many virions inactivated.
People with high levels of IgE and resultant allergies.	Atopic.
Is the allergic or hypersensitivity reaction where IgE bound to mast cells and basophils bind allergens which causes the release of histamine and other potent active chemicals.	Type 1 hypersensitivity reactions.
Humoral immunity?	Antibody mediated immunity.
Cell mediated immunity	T cell and B cells.
Cytotoxic or cytolytic hypersensitivity when IgM or IgG Ab binding to Ag on the body's own cells.Blood transfusion reactions,and hemolytic disease of the newborn Hdn are examples.	Type 2 reactions.
Immune complex hypersensitivity that results when small complexes of Ag and Ab form which are to small for phagocytes to digest easily and stick to various tissues.Phagocytes then release their toxic contents on the complexes damaging tissue also.	Type 3 reactions.
Cell mediated immunity reactions,which is a delayed hypersensitivity reaction that is mediated by immune cells with most destruction due to Tc cells.Requires 1 to 2 days as the cells must migrate to the site and is often called delayed hypersensitivity.	Type 4 reactions.
Brutons disease?	Pt. makes no Ab or B cells. Tx is to periodically inject pooled human gamma globulin Ab.
DiGeorge syndrome?	The thymus fails to develop so functional T cells do not form and the pt can carry out only T independent responses and suffers from many viral and fungal diseases .Bone marrow transplant can help.
Severe combined immunodeficiency?	Stem cells in the bone marrow are defective so that neither B nor T cells are produced and the person can generate no induced immunity.Bone marrow transplants are the only hope at present.
AIDS?	Kills Th cells which are central to nearly all immune responses and leaves a person vulnerable to even non pathogenic infections.
Rheumatoid arthritis.	The pts IgM recognizes IgG and produces immune complexes that are deposited in joints and kidneys were damaging inflammation occurs.A auto immune disease.
Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus.	Ab destroy the insulin producing cells of the pancreas.A auto immune disease.
Systemic lupus erythematosis.	Ab destroy nucleic acid material from the pts cells .The Ab-Ag complexes result in immune complex disease.A auto immune disease.
multiple sclerosis.	T cells destroy the sheath that covers the neurons,which results in paralysis.A auto immune disease.
Myasthenia gravis:	Abs react with nerve cell receptors to interrupt neuronal signaling.
Epitope.	The part of the antigen that actually binds to the antibody.
Antigen.	A protein or polysaccharide that is recognized by the body as foreign matter.
How much time is needed to produce antibodies?	7-10 days.
What is the function of b cells?	To produce antibodies and the specialized secreting progeny called plasma cells.They also produce memory cells which provides a quick response to future antigens exposure by producing antibodies that are against the antigen.
What does a t helper cell do?	Causes the proliferation of many immune cells.
What 3 cell types are required for an acquired immune response.	T helper cell+APC(antigen presenting cell)+B cell or T cell that is stimulated to proliferate.
What 2 cytokines are required for a acquired immune response,and what cells secrete them?	Interleukin 1 (IL1) and interleukin 2(IL2).IL1 is secreted by apc and IL2 by the T helper cells.
What cells are not stimulated in a T independent response?	T helpers cells(polysaccharide epitope)thus no memory b cells ultimately form.
Which Ab opsonize Ag.	IgM and IgG.
How do antibodies fix complement?	IgM and IgG bind to a pathogen,a C3 binding site is exposed so that complement begins its cascade of protein binding.
Small Ab-Ag complexes can give rise to what types of disease?	Arthritis,vasculitis,glomularnephritis, and other immune complexes.
Allergens?	An allergen is a substance that provokes an allergic response by inducing IgE production.
Why does first time Ag exposure not have an allergic response?	Because it produces IgM with subsequent exposure the expression may be IgE.
What does humoral immunity refer to?	It refers to antibodies.
Active immunity?	Induces the immune system into a protective state by introducing weakened or killed microbe before exposure has happened.
Gram pos,spore forming bacterium,found in soil as spores,and proliferates when brought into contact with host organic matter.Spores are heat resistant and highly adhesive.Adapts to GI tract and can develop symbiosis with host.	Bacillus cereus. It can cause both emetic(intoxication)and diarrheal(toxicoinfection)
Gram + rod,spore former,strict anaerobe,enterotoxin. Causes gangrene and frequent cause of food poisoning.7-15 hour incubation time.Primary symptoms diarrhea and abdominal cramping.Transmitted by protein rich,warm foods.Boiling destroys toxin not spores.	Clostridium perfringens.
Small gram - coccobacillus(some appear spherical),fastidious (blood agar).Slow growing.Cause brucella in cattle ,swine ,sheep,and goats.Humans catch from handling these animals or raw milk.Undulating fever,anorexia,abd pain,nausea,diarrhea.	Brucella which causes brucellosis.Grows well in macrophages which only kill the bacterium upon activation(intracellular pathogen).
What is the mode of transmission for cholera?	Spread by fecal matter in untreated water.
What physiological reaction does cholera affect?	It causes a massive loss of electrolyte through diarrhea.
Differentiating characteristics of shigellosis vs salmonellosis.	Bloody diarrhea with raspberry jam stool vs a less severe form of diarrhea respectively.
What is emb agar used for?	It is used to culture coliforms to trace the occurrence of fecal contamination in well water and other food sources.
Compare salmonellosis with Typhoid fever.	Less severe form of diarrhea vs intestinal ulcerations with bloody stools,bacterimia with resultant rose spots and a stepladder fever.
What is the proper means of diagnosing bacillus cereus-mediated gastroenteritis?	Diarrhea syndrome 8-12 hours following consumption of foods such as rice dishes ,some sauces,gravies etc.that may have contained high levels of viable spores from B. cereus.
Bilirubin?	A partial breakdown product of hemoglobin.
Coxsackie virus?	A enterovirus whose 29 strains cause a variety of diseases,including aseptic meningitis,herpangina,pleurodynia,and myocarditis;strain b4 has a strong correlation with diabetes.
Echovirus?	Virus whose 31 strains cause diseases,including gastroenteritis,respiratory infections and meningitis.
Hepatitis A immune globulin?	Immunoglobulin proteins from people who have recovered from hepatitis A infections.
Hepatitis A virus?	A form of hepatitis spread via uncooked shellfish that acquire virions in seawater,from fecal contamination,or from food handlers with poor bathroom hygiene.
Infectious hepatitis?	Another name for hepatitis A virus;the name is used because fecal-oral transmission can spread easily.
Jaundice?	A hallmark symptom of hepatitis wherein the whites of the eyes and even the blood appear yellow,the urine is often dark,and the stool is clay gray.
Rna virus,naked icosahedral virion,5 kinds that can infect, causes jaundice,dark urine, clay grey stool caused by partial breakdown of hemoglobin,causes nausea,vomiting ,stomach pain.Good hygiene and sewage treatment prevent this.	Hepatitis A.
Naked,icosahedral virion. Rna genome,two of the viruses responsible are Coxackie virus and echovirus. Cause gastroenteritis, aseptic meningitis, herpangina,pleurodynia,and myocarditis.	Enteroviral infections.
The virus damages the liver so that the hemoglobin breakdown by the hepatocytes is interrupted at the bilirubin stage.The yellow bilirubin builds up in blood to produce jaundice.	Hepatitis and it's cause of jaundice.
When people receive hepatitis HAV immune globulin proteins from the blood of people who have recovered from a hep A infection.	Treatment for HAV (hepatitis A virus).
An amoebic disease most commonly caused by Entamoeba histolytica.	Amoebiasis.
The only major disease caused by ciliates;it is caused by the organism Balantidium coli.	Balantidiasis.
A disease resulting in diarrhea for 1 to 2 weeks in normal individuals or a profuse diarrhea in immunocompromised patients(who often die of the disease);it is caused by Cryptosporidium parvum.	Cryptosporidiosis.
A disease who's symptoms include watery diarrhea,cramps,and vomiting that persist for a month or more;it is caused by the parasite Cyclospora cayetanensis.	Cyclosporiasis.
A host in which a parasite reproduces sexually.	Definitive host.
Flat,leaf shaped,single-celled parasites that have complex life cycles and attach to their host by means of suckers;they often use both intermediate and definitive host.	Flukes.
A disease common in the United States among hikers and other people that spend a lot of time outdoors;it is caused by Giardia lamblia.	Giardiasis.
Extremely common roundworms.	Helminths.
A category of parasites,including Ancylostoma duodenale and Necatur americanus,that attach to human intestines and cause anemia by sucking blood.	Hookworms.
A host in which parasites lives but does not reproduce sexually.	Intermediate host.
The motile forms of hatched Schistosoma eggs,which swim until they find the proper host.	Miracidia.
A more widely known name for Enterobius vermicularis,the most prevalent helminth in children.	Pinworm.
A segment of tape worm;it is essentially a uterus.	Proglottid.
A disease caused by flukes Schistosoma mansoni,S.japonicum,and S.haematobium which have complicated life cycle and are fairly common.	Schistosomiasis.
The head of a tapeworm;it has a hook or a sucker for attachment to infected tissue.	Scolex.
An immune reaction caused by Cerceria;symptoms include raised skin papules.	Swimmers itch.
Disease caused by Trichinella spiralis when contaminated pork is not thoroughly cooked.	Trichinosis.
A name referring to Trichuris trichuria,whose long,slender shape resembles a bullwhip.	Whipworm.
3 protozoa that cause intestinal tract infections.	Amoebiasis(Entamoeba histolytica),Giardiasis (Giardia lambla),Cryptosporidiosis (Cryptosporidium parvum).(protozoa).
Entamoeba histolytica.	Causes amoebiasis and uses pseudopod motility. Fecal oral route.Cyst matures into trophozoits near the junction of small and large intestine , ulcerate the intestinal wall and enter the bloodstream to travel to organs and cause lethal disease.(protozoa.)
Giardia lamblia.	Causes giardiasis,common in U.S. in outdoorsmen. Fecal oral route .Resistant to chlorine or other halogens.Cyst develope into flagellated trophozoits(Smiling mouth appearance)in intestines.Cramps,nausea,and diarrhea with odiferous flatulence.(protozoa)
Cyclospora cayetanensis.	Cyclosporiasis ,non motile,large oocytes(30 microns),found in imported berries and travelers from Mexico and Caribbean.Diarrhea,vomiting,cramps for 1 month.Small size,intracellular,with poor staining make hard to diagnose.(Protozoa)
Balantidium coli.	Balantidiasis, large,single celled protozoa (0.1mm)only major human disease caused by ciliates. Catch from undercooked food esp. pork and H2O. Cyst pass to stomach,trophozoites develop in intestines and cause ulcerations, profuse diarrhea, nausea.
Cryptosporidium parvum.	Causes Cryptosporidiosis,watery diarrhea,non motile,small(10 microns),1-2 weeks of diarrhea in the healthy and profuse in the immunocompromised. Invade epithelial cells of the intestinal tract and grow in them.Fecal oral and day care centers.
Tapeworms.	Flatworm ,head(scolex)with segmented proglotids(essentially a uterus),nonmotile. Scolex has hooks or sucker for attachment to infected tissue.
Round worms.	Also called nematodes ,live in all soils and water and infect every kind of plant and animal known.
Platyhelminths?	Flatworms.They are often hermaphroditic.
Roundworms?	Aschelminths. Also called nematodes,and are seperate sexes.
Schistosomiasis.	A fluke ,motility with powerfull tail called cercaria(tadpole),develops in a fluke specific snail before infecting human.Human definative host.S. mansoni,S.japonicum and S. haematobium. Cercaria to skin to liver =mating to urine and feces=out to new host.
Intermediate host.	Where larval fluke grows.
Definative host.	where the adult fluke grows.
Tape worms.Forms cyst in muscles that are consumed and spread to new host.	Taenia saginata,and T.solium. Flat worms with many segmented proglottids,non motile,Head (scolex) has a hook or sucker and individual segment called proglottids(uterus)which grows behind the scolex and produce eggs.Proglottids break of and spread eggs.
Pinworms?	Enterobius vermicularis.Most prevalent helminth in kids.30% of kids and 16% of adults infected in U.S.Lays eggs on anus at night and itching spreads by fecal oral.Causes itching and diarrhea.
Whipworms?Which cause infection when people consume food or water contaminated with whipworm larvae.	Trichuris trichuria has a long slender structure that resembles a bull whip.Attaches to the junction of the small and large intestines and damages tissues with whipping movements.40mm long.Ingest blood and causes anemia.Eggs to soil=larvae.
Ascariasis?Can grow into large masses that can block intestinal tract or perforate it and be passed to lungs where they are coughed up and re infect the intestines.	Ascaris lumbricoides ,roundworm that is so muscular it damages the intestinal tract.30% of worlds pop and 2% of U.S. pop.2nd only to E. vermicularis. Female produces 200,000 eggs a day which attache to plants and are consumed.
Trichinella spiralis. A Pig to Human back to pig parasitic infection.	Roundworm,forms cyst in brain and muscles of host that are painful and damaging.Caused by eating pork that is not thoroughly cooked.Worms live in pig intestines and produce larvae that travel to the muscle of the pig.Causes Trichinosis.
Hookworms.Grow in soil and attach to bare feet,travel to the lungs,are coughed up and swallowed were they end up in the intestines.	Ancyclostoma duodenale & Necatur americanus: Roundworm,larvae have hooks that attach to bare feet.Attach to human intestines and suck blood causing anemia.Humans are single host in the life cycle.Eggs pass out in feces to soil.
List 3 protozoans that cause intestinal tract infections.	Giardia lamblia,Entamoeba histolytica,and Cryptosporidium parvum.
What is the definitive host of a Helminth.	The host in which a sexually mature form grows.
How is Taenia saginata acquired?	By eating undercooked beef with the cyst in them.
Cervical inflammation associated with cancer ,injury from an external object,and sexually transmitted disease.	Cervicitis.
A painless ulcer in a patients genital area that presents in the first stage of syphilis.	Chancre.
A very common sexually transmitted disease affecting the genitals and or the eye;it is 1 of several infections caused by Chlamydia trachomatis.	Chlamydia.
Host cells from which ATP is transported.	Energy parasites.
A general group of mental illness including emotional instability,memory loss,impaired judgement,delusions,hallucinations,loss of vision,eye damage,and speech defects-that develops about 20 years after syphilis infection.	General paresis.
Another name for the sexually transmitted disease widely known as gonorrhea(Neisseria gonorrhea)	Gonococcus.
A common sexually transmitted disease caused by bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae;it generally causes urethritis in men and cervicitis in women,and it progresses to an invasive PID in women 10% of the time.	Gonorrhea.
Granulomas that are part of the third stage of syphilitic infection;they are characterized by destruction of soft tissue of the bone,heart,brain,internal viscera,and few microorganisms are present.	Gummas.
Eye infection in newborns caused by Chlamydia trachomatis,called as such because of inclusions(endosomal bags of growing Chlamydia)seen in the cytoplasm of eye cells:it causes inflamation and can be transmitted from an untreated,infected mother to baby.	Inclusion conjunctivitis.
Nongonococcal urethritis.	An infection of the urethra that is not caused by gonorrhea:it is most commonly caused by Chlamydia trachomatis.
Pelvic inflammatory disease;this can refer to infection of any part of the female reproductive system and it is commonly caused by advanced forms of gonorrhea and chlamydia.	PID.
The protein that comprises pili,which are small appendages that allow bacteria to attach to each other.	Pilin.
A source for a given disease(e.g.,humans are the only resevoir for Gonorrhea).	Reservoir.
A disease caused by Chlamydia trachomatis ascending into the Fallopian tubes,where the bacteria cause scarring that leads to closure of the tubes and sterility of the women.	Salpingitis.
A sexually transmitted disease,caused by Treponema pallidum, that can occur in 3 stages:the development of a chancre,the spread of the disease through the blood stream,and the development of gummas: about 20 years after infection,general paresis develops.	Syphilis.
A disease of the eye caused by Chlamydia trachomatis that derives from hypersensitivity reactions due to multiple infections and is the largest cause of preventable blindness in the world.	Tracoma
Inflammation of the urethra caused by gonorrhea.	Urethritis.
Gonorrhea characteristics.	Gram neg,bean shaped diplococci,pili holdfast (to overcome urine flow)antiphagocytic,called gonococcus.Human only source,fastidious,asymptomatic carry common in women and rectally in both sexes.Can progress to PID.
Gonorrhea symptoms;	Males have urethritis,dysuria,and pus drainage.Females have cervicitis,pharyngitis,and proctitis.
Gonorrhea treatment.	Pcn and if that is ineffective ceftriaxone.
Syphilis.	Treponium pallidium:spirochete,0.2 to 15 microns,need dark field or flouresant microscope to visualize,highly motile,fastidious,growing only in rabbit testes which makes study difficult.Gram neg cell structure,but to thin to be seen using a gram stain
Syphillis stage 1.	Painless chancre usually on genitalia about 3 weeks after infection.Females can have a hard time observing,they have a layer of highly infectious fluid.
Syphillis stage 2.	Latent for 2 to 10 weeks.Spread via blood, lymphatic system,usually accompanied by a rash on the palms of the hand and soles of the feet- last for weeks or months.Called the great impostor for mimicking the symptoms of other diseases.
Syphillis stage 3.	Tertiary stage. forms gummas,which can damage bone,soft tissue,heart,brain,internal organs.Damage due to immunohypersensitivity not organisms.20 years post infection can have general paresis dementia(emotional instability,memory loss,and impaired .
Describe the characteristics of Chlamydia.	Chlamydia trachomatis.Gram neg,roundish,no peptidoglycan,obligate intracellular pathogen,energy parasite,vegetative intracellular form and infectious extracellular form.#1 infectious bacterium in the world,grows/ initiates infection in phagocytes.
How is Chlamydia cultivated?	In the laboratory using embryonated chicken eggs or tissue culture as one would propogate viruses.
Most common cause of nongonococcal urethritis.	Chlamydia trachomatis.
Other diseases of Chlamydia trachomatis.	Cervicitis,pharyngitis,proctitis,conjunctivitis,and trachoma the most preventable cause of blindness in the world.
Inclusion conjunctivitis.	Involves endosomal bags of chlamydia seen in cytoplasm of the eye.
Salpingitis.	Is caused by cervivitis and the microbe Chlamydia trachomatis and can cause sterility due to scaring of the Fallopian tube.
What is the reservoir of Neisseria gonorrhoeae?	Humans.
Morphology and Gram reactivity of Neisseria.	Bean shaped and Gram negative.
How is Gonorrhea diagnosed?	Gram negative diplococci from urethra exudate and the species is confirmed with sugar fermentation test.
How is Neisseria gonorrhoeae treated.	Penicillin or ceftraxone.
How does Neisseria gonorrhea overcome the urine flushing mechanism.	By using pili holdfast.
Treponema pallidum is also known as?	Syphilis.
Treponema pallidum (syphilis),shape ,motility and transmission?	Coiled,spiral shape,highly motile,and sexually transmitted.
Treatment of syphilis?	treated in first 2 stages with pcn,but antibacterials useless in 3rd stage.
What is general paresis?	A type of syphilis induced dementia that appears 20 years after infection,includes emotional instability,memory loss,impaired judgement,delusions,hallucinations,loss of vision,eye damage and speech defects.
How often is Chlamydial infection asymptomatic?	In 70% of females and 30% of males.
Where must a drug travel to be effective against Chlamydia?	Into host cell so as to get at the inclusion body's and finally into the bacteria.
Characteristics of genital herpes(HSV-2).	Enveloped virion,dna genome,icosahedral capsule.
How does genital herpes spread?	Via direct contact.Condoms help to stop the spread tenfold by protecting against contact with open lesions.
Symptoms of genital herpes?	Penile,vulvar,and perianal infections,especially painful in the case of females.
Genital herpes treatment?	Acyclovir helps to reduce the severity and length of recurrent infection and for painfull genital recurrences.
Disseminated disease of the newborn?	A devastating and lethal disease passed from hsv infected mothers to baby.Antiviral treatment is of little help.
Herpetic keratitis cause and treatment?	Hsv spread to the eye.Treatment is idoxurdine.
Treatment for HSV-2 caused encephalitis?	AraA (adeninearabinoside).
Acyclovir.	The best drug treatment of all HSV infections because it helps reduce severity and length of recurrent infections and is especially useful for painful genital recurrences.
Cofactor.	A condition that exacerbates anothe condition.E.G.smoking is a cofactor that can cause cervical carcinoma in combination with HPV.
Genital warts.	Usually benign tumors but a few types are found in 95% of all cervical carcinoma,which are the cause of death of 3500 women in the USA each year.
Candidiasis.	A fungal infection known a s a yeast infection;it is frequently caused by the extremely common Candida albicans and presents with pruritus(itching),vaginal burning,and white cheese like discharge.
Dimorphism?	Involves unusual cultures that demonstrate yeast like morphology while in the host but transition to a mold like appearance if grown for to long in the laboratory.
Trichomoniasis.	An infection caused by Trichomonas vaginalis that is transmitted mainly by sexual contact;symptoms include vaginitis in females and urethritits in males.
Undulating membrane.	A membrane that waves,or undulates,back and forth as the protozoan of Trichomonas vaginalis swims by means of flagella;it serves as a readily recognized identification marker.
Vulvovaginitis.	An inflammation of the vagina and vulva that is caused by various infections.
Yeast infection.	A common name for candidiasis.
Viral diseases of the respiratory tract?	HSV-2(herpes simplex virus-2)and HPV(Human papilloma virus).
Human Papilloma Virus characteristics?	Naked,icosahedral virion,DNA genome,responsible for over 70% of cervical cancers(5th most deadly in women.)Begins as benign tumors and some progress to tumors.Causes cervical cancer,pap smear test for papilloma virus.Must have a cofacter(carcinogen.)
HPV(human papilloma virus) treatment?	Gardisil is the normal vaccine for strain 6,11,16,18 and can protect from strains of hpv that cause 70% of cervical cancer cases and 90% of genital warts.
What is the epidemiology of HSV-2?	Causes penile,vulvar,and perianal infections and it is spread with direct contact,even when lesions are not present.
What is the concern for the fetus and neonate with respect to genital herpes infection of the mother.	It can be passed to the infant born vaginally and cause disseminated disease of the newborn.C-section recommended.
Describe the characteristics of Candidiasis (Candida albicans).	Dimorphic yeast,ovoid in shape,often recurrent,causes 72% of nosocomial fungal infections.Normal vaginal flora in 30% of women.Causes frank vaginitis,candidiasis(yeast infection.)
Describe the symptoms of Cadidiasis(Candida albicans).	Pruritus(itching,vaginal burning,white cheese like discharge.Males less symptomatic than females.
"Ping pong" Candidiasis.	When a asymptomatic male reinfects a female who has been treated.
Candidiasis causes.	Diabetes,broad spectrum antibiotics,pregnancy,tight fitting garments and oral contraceptives.
Oral thrush.	Passed to infants from there Candidiasis infected mothers as they are born.
Treatment of Candidiasis.	Direct microscopic observation of pt.smears containing pseudohyphae typical for candida species.Treatment includes amphotericin B in conjunction withh ketoconazole or fluconazole(latter 2 are less prone to side effects than amphotericin B).
Trichomoniasis characteristics.(Trichomoniasis vaginalis)	Protozoan,motility via flagella,causes trichomoniasis. Has a lateral membrane that protrudes from 1 side and undulates while it swims by means of flagella.
Trichomoniasis symptoms.	Vaginitis in females with white frothy discharge. Urethritis in males.Both sexes experience burning with urination
Trichomoniasis transmission.	Sexual contact.
Trichomoniasis diagnosis.	finding motile protozoans in wet mounts of clinical specimens.
Vulvovaginitis symptoms.	Inflammation of the vulva and vagina that is caused by various infections.
Dimorphism.	When a person infection is a yeast at body temps and a mold in the environment,as is the case for Candida albicans.
Describe the undulating membrane?	It is the lateral membrane of the protozoan that causes trichomoniasis.The membrane waves back and forth as the organism swims with its flagella.
Treatment for Neisseria gonorrheae?	PCN and ceftriaxone if pcn resistant.
What is silver nitrate given to infants for?	To treat for Neisseria gonorrheae in eyes.(eye drops).
Pt has been diagnosed by finding Gram neg,diplococci that are oxidase positive.What is it.	Neisseria gonorrheae.
Tetracycline is the treatment of choice for what bacterial disease of the urogenital tract.	Chlamydia trachomatis because pcn will not work because of the lack of cell wall.
Bests drug to treat all HSV infections?	Acyclovir:helps to reduce the severity and length of recurrent infection and very use full for painful genital recurrences.
Drug to treat Herpetic keratitis?	Idoxurdine which acts to inhibit viral DNA replication.
Drug to treat herpetic encephalitis?	AraR (adenine arabinoside) which acts to inhibit viral DNA replication.
ImmunoVEX ?	A vaccine candidate for the HSV2.
Normal treatment for Human Papilloma Virus (genital warts).	Surgical removal is the normal treatment.
The normal vacine for HPV strains 6,11,16,18.	Gardasil.
Treatment for Candidiasis?	Amphotericin B in conjunction with Ketoconazole or fluconazole which are less prone to side effects than amphotericin B.
Anthrax?	An acute disease caused by Bacillus anthracis that is considered a primary candidate for biological warfare.80% mortality rate when untreated.Blood infection that includes hemorrhaging,boils,and bloody diarrhea.
Catalase?	An enzyme that protects Staphylococcus aureus bacteria from lysosomal reactive oxygen compounds.
Coagulase?	An enzyme that is secreted by Staphylococcus aureus;it clots the blood near the infected site to form an abscess and effectively walls off area from the immune system.
Coagulase test?	The usual differential test for Staphylococcus aureus:it is used because only S.aureus can coagulate the clotting factors in plasma.
Debridement?	The removal of dead tissue and foreign material.
Exfoliatin ?	An exotoxin that is produced by some strains of S. aureus and causes desquamation or denuding,which is often seen in newborns as scalded skin syndrome.
Gas gangrene?	A disease named in reference to the fact that bacteria are prolific gas producers,and the lesions become green and then black as the organism Clostridium perfingens produces extracellular enzymes that rot tissues and block blood flow.
Hansen's disease?	Caused by Mycobacterium leprae;it is a disease of the skin and neurons.Most people develop hypersensitivity,which holds growth of the organism in check and also destroys neurons,bone,and skin;it is widely known as leprosy.
Lepromatous leprosy?	A disease resulting from leprosy where hypersensitivity does not develop.
Leprosy?	The more widely known name for Hansen's disease.
Leukocidins?	Substances produced by Staphylococcus aureus to destroy white blood cells.
Protein A?	A most important virulence factor in Staphylococcus aureus; a surface protein resulting in a bacterium that appears on the surface to be a host;Binds human antibodies at the fc end and makes the bacterium look like human immune system.
Pyogenic?	A word describing any pus-forming disease.
Tetanospasmin?	A toxin that causes muscle spasm,or tetany,and is observed to cause the jaw muscles to contract intensely;the common name is lock jaw.
Tetanus?	a disease,caused by Clostridium tetani,that affects the muscles and nerves and is easily prevented with the tetanus toxoid vaccine.
Tetany?	Muscle spasms;caused by tetanospasmin in many cases.
VRE?	An acronym for Vancomycin-resistant enterococcus, a name created for increasingly common vancomycin-resistant strains of Enterococcus faecalis.
Gingivostomatitis.	The primary disease caused by Herpes simplex virus type 1;it consist of oral lesions.
Herpes labialis?	The recurrent disease caused by herpes simplex virus type 1;it consist of cold sores or fever blisters.
Herpes simplex virus?	A virus that comes in two types: HSV-1 and HSV-2. HSV-1 causes gingivostomatitis as the primary disease and herpes labialis in the recurrent disease.
Hydrophobia?	A reaction or aversion to and fear of the water in rabid animals and humans caused by the fact when a rabid animal or human tries to swallow,the throat muscle contract in a extremely painful spasm.
Kaposi's sarcoma?	A tumor caused by human herpes virus 8;it is 1 of the major diseases associated with AIDS.
Negri bodies?	Black inclusions found in the brain tissue of a brain infected by rabies.
Rabies?	A common disease in wild animals that targets the nervous system and is transmitted from host to host by way of bites;once symptoms occur death is inevitable.
Recurrence?	When a latent virus resurfaces to cause trouble in the host after some period of dormancy.
Roseola?	A rash caused by humans herpes virus 6 that mostly occurs in children before age of 3.
Smallpox?	A disease of vast historical import,responsible for countless deaths and the dramatic collapse of empires and nations;recent concerns that a bioterrorist may use it as a weapon has lead the USA to stockpile vaccines.
Warts?	Mostly benign growths caused by many types of papilloma viruses.
Dermatophytes ?	Fungi that cause skin disease.
Mycoses?	Skin disease caused by fungi.
Ringworm?	A disease that presents as round,raised area with intense itching;it is caused by Microsporum,Trichophyton, and Epidermophyton.
Sporotrichosis?	A disease caused by Sporothrix schenckii,which grows on plants,wood,straw and infects via puncture wounds in the skin;it is also called rose thorn disease because a rose thorn is considered the ideal object for transmission.
Thrush?	A type of Candidiasis that occurs in the mouth and causes small white flecks or patches that appear on oral membranes and resemble milk curd when they grow.
Tetanus characteristics?	Gram + bacillus,spore forming,obligate anaerobe,caused by tetanospasmin which causes tetany and can cause the jaw muscles to contract intensely.
Tetanus symptoms?	Muscle spasm especially in the jaw.
Tetanus transmission.	Acquired by wounds in the skin were this soil bound ,spore forming ,anaerobe, gain entry into the body? 80% to 90% fatal.
Tetanus treatment?	Vaccination with an additional booster every 10 years.
Characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus.	Gram +,catalase +,mannitol +,Staphylo=grape cluster,aureus=gold producing yellow colony's.30% to 50% of all people carry S. aureus in the anterior nares at any given moment.
Catalase positive?	Means it can coagulate the clotting factors in plasma. Catalase degrades the activated oxygen-containing compound hydrogen peroxide that phagocytic cells make to kill infectious agents.
S.aureus virulence?	Protein A,which makes the microbe look like human immune system. hemolysins,destroy RBC ,and leukocidins that destroy white blood cells. Coagulase clots blood to form abscess. Catalase which protects from lysosomal reactive O2,DNase or nuclease also.
S. aureus treatment?	Usually resistant to all pcn. Methicillin has been our backup,Vancomycin resistance is also becoming common.Pus must be drained to effect healing.Not destroyed by freezing or food warming temps.
People at particular risk of S. aureus infections.	Immunocompromised pts,diabetes pts,IV drug users,clients in extended stay health care facility's,individuals living in large numbers in limited space(prison inmates),and people who spend time in locker rooms or gyms.
Hardiest non spore forming bacterial pathogen?	S. aureus.
Characteristics of Anthrax(bacillus anthracis)?	Gram + bacillus,spore former,which survive indefinitely as long as growth conditions are absent.Anaerobe,considered a candidate for biological warfare as its ability to survive and spread many spores.Treatment by vaccination and treatment of cattle.
Anthrax symptoms?	Blood infection,bleeding,boils and bloody diarrhea as well as 80% mortality rate when untreated.
Non lepramatous leprosy characteristics?	Rod shaped,won't gram stain,slowest advancing bacterial diseases. Mycobacterium leprae(Hansen's disease)/ disease of the skin and neurons.Hypersensitivity develops in most people keeping growth in check,but it destroys bone,neurons,skin.Low contagious.
Lepromatous leprosy?	When hypersensitivity does not develop in response to leprosy(Hansens disease).The Mycobacterium leprae organism build up by the billions in the mucous and tissues
Culturing Mycobacterium leprae?	Not in bacteriological media,must be in mouse foot pads or 9 banded armadillo.2 to 10 year incubation time.
Lepracy diagnosis?	Diagnosed by the appearance of skin lesions that have lost sensation.
Gas gangrene characteristics?	Caused by Clostridium perfringens ,gram +,spore forming,bacillus.Prolific gas producer,lesions become green and black . C. perfringens produces extracellular enzymes that putrefy flesh and block blood flow. Tx often includes amputation of infected limbs.
Characteristics of Enterococcus faecalis.	Group D strep,normal gut flora,a-hemolytic,very antibiotic resistant.Perforation of bowel, or nosocomial infection.Many resistant to methicillin and vancomycin (vre).
How does a tetanus infection occur.	Tetanus is caused by a puncture wound that is infected with soilborne spores Clostridium tetani.
What species of Staphylococcus is coagulase positive?	S. aureus.
List of diseases caused by S. aureus?	Food poisoning,nosocomial infections,impetigo,boils desquamation,denuding in newborns,pneumonia,osteomyelitis.
Virulence determinants and there functions for S. aureus?	Protein A cloaks the bacteria with human antibodies,hemolysins(destroy rbc),leukocydins(destroy white blood cells),coagulase(clots blood),catalase(degrades hydrogen peroxide).
Characteristics of smallpox?	large virion with multilayered membranous surface.Double stranded dna genone(dsDNA).
History of smallpox?	Europes death rate was 50%,native American was 90%.Edward Jenner noticed milkmaids with cowpox did not catch smallpox.last case of smallpox was said to havebeen eradicated in 1977 by WHO.
Smallpox treatment.	Vaccination.
Rabies characteristics?	Bullet shaped virion,enveloped single strand rna genome,neurotropic.
Rabies transmission?	From being infected by a infected animal.May take 6 weeks to several months to travel via neurons.
Rabies symptoms.	Tingling sensation around the bite site with fever and headache following.Very painful to swallow and hydrophobia.Death due to respiratory paralysis.
Rabies treatment.	Multiple dose vaccine that works even after a person is bit because of the viruses slow travel rate.
Rabies diagnosis?	By looking at infected brain tissue and black inclusion bodies called negri bodies.
Name of virus that causes warts?	Papilloma virus.
Papilloma virus characteristics.	Naked virion,DNA viruses,70 known types.
Herpes latency.	The infected person harbors the virus for life.A hallmark of the disease.
Herpes recurrence.	Reactivation after being latent.These viruses may reactivate 1 to many times despite high antibody titer. The recurrence usually has somewhat different symptoms,such as a reduced area of infection.
Herpes simplex virus type 1.	Causes oral lesions(gingivostomatitis) as the primary disease and herpes labialis(cold or fever sores)in the recurrent disease.Goes latent in the neurons of the face and mouth.When they reactivate they usually cause only 1 lesion in that dermatome.
Age at which most children have contracted HSV-1.?	Most by the age of 5.
Herpes virus characteristics?	Enveloped virions,icosahedral nucleocapsid,dna viruses.95% of people are infected and 20% have recurrent disease.
Herpes keratitis?	A latent viral infection of the eye.Symptoms include a gritty sensation,conjunctivitis,sensitivity to light,and sharp pain.Can lead to vision loss that requires surgical cornea replacement.
Herpes encephalitis?	A brain disorder that can cause death and and is caused by HSV-1.
Human herpes virus-6.	Causes a high fever that last for 3-5 days with a rash called roseola appearing near the end of the fever in about 10% of cases.In 1% of cases seizures may result from infection.90% of children have been infected with the HHV-6 by the age of 3.
Human Herpes virus-7.	Found in 70% of children by the age of 10.Common in saliva,even called a commensal in saliva.May be associated with roseola.
Human herpes virus -8	Is strongly associated with kaposi Sarcoma.Purplish ,brown,tumors,most often seen in AIDS pt with the virus being isolated in semen and saliva.Sexual contact spread,mostly in Homosexual males.
Other diseases associated with HHV-8.	Skin cancers and 1 type of lymphoma.
Describe Negri bodies.	Black inclusions found in the infected brain cells of a rabies infected brain.
Name of the virus that causes warts?	Papilloma virus.
Herpes virus replicates in the?	It is a Dna virus so it replicates in the cells nucleus.
What are the sites of infection for HSV-1.	Usually above the waist and are found on the face and mouth.
What is the primary disease of HSV-1?	Gingivostomatitis. A type of oral lesion.
What is the recurrent disease for HSV-1?	Herpes labialis. A type of cold sore or fever blister.
Bubo?	Painful,swollen lymph node that is packed with immune cells and dying tissue for which the bubonic plague is named.
Bubonic plague?	Caused by Yersinia pestis that is also called the black death;Its normal bacterial host include mice and rats and fleas act as vectors.
Fungemia?	Fungi in the blood.
Lyme Disease?	Caused by Borrelia burgdorferi,which is transmitted by the Ixodes tick.Causes influenza like symptoms;and eventually progresses to immune complex diseases and arthritis.
Pneumonic plague?	An instance of Bubonic plague that is spread from human to human via respiratory aerosols.
Q fever.	A disease with influenza like symptoms that humans acquire from from aerosols or contaminated animal fluids ,including milk;caused by Coxiella burnetii,which is closely related to Rickettsia.
Rocky Mountain spotted fever.	Caused by Rickettsia rickettsii,bacteria that require cycling between blood-sucking arthropods and mammals.Found mostly in the eastern United States.
Septic shock.	When agents or toxins cause a person to go into shock.
Systemic disease.	A disease spread throughout the body.
Toxic shock syndrome.	Caused by the failure to regularly change tampons and the resultant exotoxins secreted by S. aureus.
Tularemia.	Painful disease known as rabbit fever that commonly spread via mucous membranes in people who skin rabbits caused by Francisella tularensis.
Typhus.	An epidemic caused by Rickettsia prowazekii and transmitted by the body louse;it is especially a problem in times of war,famine,or poverty.
Arbovirus.	A virus with 400 varieties that spread from birds to humans via mosquito bites.
Cytomegalovirus.	A disease that causes 10% of infectious mononucleosis cases;it can cause a variety of defects in a fetus/infant,including mental damage and loss of hearing.
Ebola virus.	A hemorrhagic fever with a high mortality rate.Natural host for Ebola virus remains unknown,so disease is difficult to understand.
Epstein-Barr virus.	Virus that causes 90% of infectious mononucleosis cases.Children under 15 are usually asymptomatic:incidence is high in those 16-20 years of age. EBV infects B-lymphocytes,causing there cytoplasm to grow dramatically and it remains latent for life.
Hantavirus.	A hemorrhagic fever pathogen indigenous to the United States.It was first identified when it caused an number of cases in the Southwest in 1993.It causes hemorrhaging and respiratory failure.Deer mouse is the primary carrier.
Hemorrhagic fevers.	Fever with bleeding from the body orifices like mouth eyes,ears and nose.Internal organs can rupture or liquefy due to viral damage.Viruses come in many shapes and sizes as well as dna and RNA naked or enveloped.
Hepatitis.	A family of viruses spread by blood or semen that may expand in the future.
Infectious mononucleosis.	An infection caused bu Epstein-Barr virus that is widely known as the kissing disease.
Lassa fever.	An acute hemorrhagic fever recently recognized in Africa.
Marburg disease.	hemorrhagic fever related to Ebola virus that was recently recognized in Africa.
Retinitis.	An infection that causes retina to degenerate,leading to blindness,developed by most HIV patients showing reactivation of cytomegalovirus.
West Nile encephalitis virus.	First identified in New York City in 1999,spread south and west to include half the states.We have no way to stop it.
Yellow fever virus.	A well known tropical virus for which travelers may need vaccination.
Lymphadenopathy.	A disorder that involves swollen lymph nodes and a swollen spleen;it is characterizes toxoplasmosis.
Malaria.	A disease caused by 4 species of plasmodium,with plasmodium falciparum being responsible for 80% of cases;death usually results from anemia,kidney damage,heart attacks,or cerebral hemorrhages.
Merozoites.	The transformed forms of sporozoites that are infectious for red blood cells and escape the immune system by constantly changing the gene used to express their surface protein
Quinine.	A chemical extracted from a tree bark that has been used since the 1600 in the treatment of malaria,although resistance is becoming common.
Toxoplasmosis.	A disease that is caused by Toxoplasma gondii and damages its host through the growth of parasites called trophozoites in host tissue.
Trypanosomiasis.	A disease also known as the sleeping sickness that is caused by two species of genus Trypanosoma and often culminates in a coma that leads to death.
Aquired immunodeficiency disease.	A collection of symptoms and conditions resulting from damage to the immune system caused by hiv.
CD4.	Helper T cells used by the HIV virus to produce new virions
Combination therapy(combinational therapy).	A method,used by most HIV treatment regimens today,wherein 2 or more drugs are used simultaneously;It is extremely effective when at least 1 drug from each of the 3 classes is used.
GP160.	A surface attachment protein that allows HIV to bind to T cell receptors.
Human immunodeficiency virus.(HIV)	A retrovirus that systmematically undermines the human immune system,often leading to AIDS
Polyproteins.	Several proteins combined.
Protease inhibitor.	An antiviral that prevents virus protease from breaking down large viral protein molecules into smaller protein molecules needed for the assembly of virions.
Zidovudine (AZT).	The first and best known of about 22 available antivirals,a class of drug that acts against viral reverse transcription to inhibit replication.
Plague?	Gram neg rods, Yersinia pestis causes this disease.Painfully swollen lymph nodes called bubos.Secondary phase dark purple and black hemorrhages occur.Spread from flea vectors from mice and rats.
Tularemia?	Gram neg rod,caused by Francisella tularensis.Infections common via mucous membranes in people who skin rabbits.Most cases are in summer from bites of deer ticks or deer flies.Ulcer at bite site,fever,chills,and aches.
Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever.	Gram neg, cocccobacilli,obligate intracellular bacteria,transmitted by ticks,caused by Ricketsia ricketsii.Eastern U.S. most common.Cycles between blood sucking arthropods and mammals.
Rocky mountain spotted fever symptoms?	Begins with fever,headach,muscle and joint pain.Pink rash on hands and soles of feet appears in about 1 week and spreads to rest of body.It can then become hemorrhagic and lead to shock and death.
Types of typhus.	Epidemic typhus(Rickettsia prowazekii),Endemic typhus (Rickettsia typhi),and Q fever(Coxiella burnettii).
Epidemic typhus.	(Rickettsia prowazekii)transmitted by body louse with humans the primary resevoir.The lice move from infected clothing to people and back to clothing.
Endemic typhus.	(Rickettsia typhi),Gram neg coccobacilli,obligate intracellular bacteria,transmitted by fleas.Prevalent in the rodent pop,uncommon in humans.Mild fever with headache and general rash.
Q fever.	(Coxiella burnetii)Gram neg coccobacilli,obligate intracellular bacteria,transmitted by insects or fluids.Related to Rickettsia.Animals catch via insect vectors,humans from aerosols or contaminated animal fluids (milk).Cattle,sheep,goats host.
Q fever symptoms and treatment.	Flu like symptoms that may progress to fever ,headache,pneumonias and endocarditis.Antibiotics tetracycline or doxycycline.
Phase 1 lymes disease.	A red rash appears in 2/3 of pt.Red ring slowly expands with a red spot remaining at the site of the tick bite.May be 15" in diameter.
Phase 2 lymes disease.	Bacteria enter the bloodstream and cause influenza like symptoms.Antibiotics therapy usefull in stage 1 and 2.(Antibiotics doxycycline for adults,Amoxicillin for children,erythromycin for pregnant women).
Lymes disease.	Spirochete,transmitted by ticks.Caused by Borrelia burgdorferi.Which is transmitted by the Ixodes tick.Named after Lyme ,Conneticut.First discovered in 1975.The disease appears widely spread with many cases in animals.Mice are primary carriers.
Toxic shock syndrome?	Gram pos, S.aureus. Exotoxin caused by infrequent tampon changes.Causes confusion and shock.Needs to be considered with any indwelling device,or any site bacteria can establish an infection.
How is Yersinia pestis spread?	It is by mice and rats via flea vectors to humans.It causes the bubonic plague.
Rocky mountain spotted fever vector.	By the tick Dermecenter andersoni spreading Rickettsia ricketsii and causes Bubonic plague.
Epidemic typhus.	Rickettsia prowazekii and body lice.
R. rickettsii reservoirs.	Blood sucking arthropods and wild animals.
R. prowazeckii reservoirs.	Humans.
Three phases of lymes disease.	1. red rash, 2.flu symptoms, 3. immune complex diseases and arthritis.
List 3 common arborviral encephalitides found in U.S.	St. louis, California, and Eastern equine encephalitis.
Arborviral encephalitides characteristics.	Nearly all occur on the east coast,in all cases humans are considered accidental host.Directly injected into bloodstream so systemic spread is rapid.Target organ is usually the brain.
Hepatitis B characteristics.	Non enveloped,icosahedral,dsDNA genome encodes reverse transcriptase and is replicated by an RNA intermediate.Displays a surface exposed antigen which has enabled a vaccine to be engineered since 1987.2 week to 6 month incubation time.Blood/semen spread.
Hepatitis C.2 week to 6 month incubation.	Non enveloped, icosahedral shaped capsid,RNA genome,primarily spread through blood.Primary liver damage from host cell mediated immunity reaction against endogenous antigens typical of HCV infected cells.Primary reason for liver transplant.Blood spread
Epstein-Barr virus?	Enveloped viral capsid with a DNA genome.Causes 90% of infectious mononucleosis cases.High incidence in those who are 16 to 20 years old.Ultimate B-lymphocyte parasite.Latent for life.
Characteristic of Cytomegalovirus.	Enveloped viral capsid with a DNA genome,causes the remaining 10% of infectious mononucleosis.Relatively mild.Reactivated in the mother from white blood cells during the 3rd trimester of pregnancy and can cause mental damage and deafness.
Gancyclovir?	Early treatment for Cytomegalovirus.
Hemorrhagic fever characteristics.	RNA and DNA,naked or enveloped,High fatality rates,short incubation time.Unknown natural host,disease is hard to understand.Symptoms include bleeding from body orifices.Ebola, Lassa fever,Marburg's disease. Bio safety level 4
Hantavirus?	A hemorrhagic fever found in the southwest United states and first seen in 1993.Deer mouse is the primary carrier and it is seen in half the U.S.Causes respiratory failure and hemorrhaging.
Arborvirus characteristics.(Arthropod borne virus).	Enveloped virus,icosahedral shape capsid,RNA genome.over 400 kinds.Spread from birds to humans via mosquito bites.Birds serve as common reservoirs,host include humans,rodents,horses monkeys or pigs.California St Louis ,and Eastern equine encephalitis.
Yellow fever?	Enveloped virus with an icosahedral shaped capsid surrounding RNA genome.An well known encephalitis virus.Found in tropical regions.Mosquito control has helped to eliminate this disease.
Walter Reed.	Army surgeon who used exhaustive and sometimes lethal experiments in 1900 to show that yellow fever was caused by an agent smaller than a bacterium and that it was transmitted by mosquito's.
Carlos Juan Finlay.	First theorized that mosquito's were carriers of yellow fever in 1881 and thus he contributed greatly to the research on mosquito's and yellow fever.
West Nile encephalitis.	Infects humans and crows,was first identified in New York in 1999.
Hepatitis D.	Icosahedral shape,small RNA genome,non enveloped,fecal oral route,high mortality.Only seen in HBV infections and worsens the prognosis.
Hepatitis E.	Icosahedral shape,small RNA genome,non enveloped,fecal oral route,high mortality.Seen in country's with poor sanitation and is similar to HAV.
Hepatitis G virus.	Newly discovered in 1996 as the causative agent of liver inflammation .Little is known of the nature of the illness or how to prevent or treat it.,related to HCV distantly.Detected in some 20% of patients with long term viral hepatitis.
Epstein-Barr virus.	Enveloped capsid,DNA genome(herpes group of viruses)Ultimate B-lymphocyte virus,hallmark of latency and recurrence.Causes 90% of infectious mononucleosis.16 to 20 year olds with high incidence.Saliva transmission.Causes B-lymphocyte cytoplasm to grow big.
Cytomegalovirus.	Enveloped capsid,DNA Genome(Herpes member)Infects up to 2.5% of all newborns in the U.S.Latent infection that causes problems in immunocompromised. Causes 10% of mononucleosis cases.
Cytomegalovirus pathology.	Reactivated in mother from white blood cells during the 3rd trimester of pregnancy and crosses the placenta.Causes mental damage and loss of hearing in fetus/infant.Reactivation is mostly seen in immunosuppressed patients.33% of HIV pt show reactivation.
Ganciclovir.	Treatment for cytomegalovirus in early treatments.An inhibitor of nucleic acid synthesis.
Hemorrhagic fevers.	A group of diseases with symptoms which include fever and bleeding from many body orifices.Internal organs can rupture and liquefy due to viral damage.Lassa fever,Ebola(unknown host), Marburgs disease 80% or higher fatality rates. Bio-safety level 4.
Arbovirus meaning?	Arthropod borne virus.
3 arborviral encephalitides common in the United states.	California ,St.louis and Eastern Equine encephalitis.
Cancer associated with HBV.	Hepatocellular carcinoma.
Where do EBV and CMV remain latent?	They remain latent in white blood cells.
Advantage to viral pathogens that result in latent or persistent infections.	By remaining dormant,and then exhibiting symptoms and spread from host to host greater opportunity's exist to spread in a new population of host,genetic drift may contribute to success of the virus to expand its virulence determinants or modify tropism.
Malaria disease transmission.	A female anopheles mosquito acquires male and female gametes who mate and penetrate out through the stomach of the mosquito and develop into oocysts that contain sporozoites. She takes a blood meal and sporozoites travel to liver and become merozoites .
Merozoites?	Come from malaria sporozoites that have traveled to the liver and become merozoites. Merozoites invade red blood cells and have a ring structure that is useful for diagnosing each species.they constantly change gene used to express surface protein.
Merozoites defenses.	Constantly changing the gene used to express their surface protein and contain some 150 different surface protein genes.
Merozoites offense.	A biochemical signal causes the infected cells to rupture simultaneously,releasing merozoites, some gametocytes, and waste products that cause malaria attacks.
Carriers of protozoa blood infections.	Mosquitoes ,flies,and cats.
Characteristics of the malaria protozoan.	Flagellar motility,mosquito vector,.Four species of plasmodium cause malaria in humans with Plasmodium falciparum being responsible for about 80% of the cases.
Malaria statistics.	250 million infected worldwide annually resulting in 2 million deaths of which over half are children under age 5.More than 1000 are diagnosed in the US each year.
Malaria symptoms?	Chills,shivering, infected person temperature rises to 104 degrees with intense headache,delirium and sometime convulsions.2 to 3 hours later the persons sweats profusely lowering body temperature.Person falls asleep exhausted.Cycle repeats in 3 days.
Malaria death caused by?	Anemia,kidney damage,heart attacks,or cerebral hemorrhage.
Malarial treatment.	Quinine from tree bark has been used since the 1600 although resistance has become common. Chloroquin and related synthetic drugs are used widely to prevent acute symptoms of the blood stage,however recurrence is seen when treatment is stopped.
Characteristics of trypanosomiasis in Africa.	Flagella motiltiy,protozoa,Tsetse fly vector.Caused by Trypanosoma brucei.Causes severe headache,chronic bouts of fever,changes in sleep behaviour,and wasteing.Brain is invaded and sleep is prolonged unto death.
Characteristics of trypanosomiasis in South America.	Flagella motility,protozoa, reduviid bug(triatomid bug) vector,Caused by Trypanosoma cruzi.Called Chaga's disease.Bugs take meal at thin skin areas like lips sometimes called kissing sickness.Death caused by destruction of heart or brain neurons.
Toxoplasmosis characteristics.	Protozoan Toxoplasmosis gondii,nonmotile,spread by cats .Cats acquire it from soil or animals they eat and pass it in their feces.Host damage due to physical growth in the tissue.Symptoms include swollen lymph nodes and spleen, fever ,malaise.
Two groups at special risk for toxoplasmosis infection.	Pregnant women can catch this and pass it to the fetus and can cause retinitis and blindness,neurolgical disorders,lesions of internal viscera,and abortion.Immunocompromised can catch it and suffer from brain infection,brain lesions,seizure,and death.
Two major body sites for human malarial infections.	The liver and red blood cells.
How does plasmodium species escape the immune system.	They have 150 surface proteins they can express.
What is the vector of malaria causing plasmodium?	The Anopheles mosquito which transmits the disease from one person to another.
Define retrovirus.	Contains reverse transcriptase which converts virion RNA into DNA inside a host cell.DNA then integrates into host DNA to cause latency. Integrated viral dna works as template for viral transcription as well as new RNA and new virions.
HIV transcription.	Via,blood semen,and vaginal fluids.Sexual contact 25 times more likely to transmit the virus from male to female.
HIV retroviral lifecycle steps.	HIV makes a viral surface protein called gp 160 that binds to t cell receptor and then to a coreceptor called ccr5 to infect cd4 cells. Hiv virus attaches, penetrates,uncoats and release rna genome.RNA is reverse transcribed into a DNA genome.
When HIV is reverse transcribed into a DNA genome what happens next.	It intergrates into the host cell genome indefinitely,and only the intergrated genome is expressed to make viral rna proteins.
Relationship of HIV to AIDS.	Hiv attacks T helper cells and the loss of the cells leads to Acquired immunodeficiency.
Time from HIV to full blown AIDS.	8 years to reduce cd4 cells sufficiently.
T helper cell counts must drop below what number to be called AIDS.	200/mm3
Explain the relationship between Kaposi sarcoma and AIDS.	The lack of cd4 cells allows latent viruses like Human Herpes Virus 8 to reactivate.
Combination therapy for the AIDS patient.	The use of 2 or more drugs simultaneously when each is not effective individually .One drug from each class is used.This effects a much greater reduction in viral particles.
First class of AIDS drugs.	Antivirals like AZT that are a chemically modified nucleotide that is incorporated into the DNA. Additional nucleotides cant be added to the DNA so that replication terminates at the site without completing the whole DNA molecule.
Second class of AIDS drugs.	Binds directly to reverse transcriptase enzyme to prevent it from acting. Nevirapine is one of the drugs and Etravirine and Efavirent are under going trials.
Third class of AIDS Drugs.	Antivirals called protease inhibitors prevents the virus protease from breaking down large viral protein molecules into the smaller viral protein molecules needed for assembly of virions. Drugs Saquinavir,Darunivir, and Indinavir.
What is a retrovirus?	Retroviruses have reverse transcriptase which uses an RNA template to make a dsDNA strand.
What is the receptor for HIV attachment to cells and what cells have this receptor?	HIV attaches to the cd4 receptor and T helper cells have this receptor.
When do overt symptoms of HIV appear?	8 to 10 years after exposure to HIV or when cd4 counts drop below 200/mm3.
How does the genome of HIV persist in certain human cells?	It makes a DNA copy from an RNA template that integrates to become part of the cell genome.
What kills AIDS victims?	The loss of T helper cells (cd4) allows only t independent immune responses.Opportunistic infections then kill the patient.
Strep sore throat?	Acute pharyngitis.B hemolytic,Group A strep,pyogenic. C carb prevents lysozyme entry and peptidoglycan,M protein host cell attachment factor.90 different antigenic types. Hyaluronic acid capsule is similar in composition to a polysaccharide in humans.
C carbohydrate?	An antigen in the typical Streptococcus cell envelope for which humans usually produce antibodies.
Cloaking devices?	Structures such as the hyaluronic acid capsule and the S. aureus antibody coating that allow S. pyogenes to evade the immune system.
Cold agglutinins.	Antibodies induced by Mycoplasma in the pt that are useful for diagnosing pneumonia.
HIB.	A capsular polysaccharide vaccine that was useful against hemophilus influenza in the past even though it was T-cell independent.
HIB conjugate.	A version of the HIB vaccine that induces a memory response in the host immune system.
Isoniazid.	An antibiotic reserved for TB treatment.
Multiple resistant TB.	Stands for multiple resistant TB,meaning strains of TB with resistance to many antibiotics.
Pneumovax.	A vaccine for bacterial pneumonia that contains 23 of the most common polysaccharide types for use in the at risk population.
PPD.	Purified protein derivative,such as certain tubercular antigens.
Tuberculosis transmission.	Respiratory droplets.
Tuberculosis symptoms.	Fever,night sweats,coughing,wasteing.
Ethanol.	A 2 carbon variety of alcohol.The type of alcohol that is consumed.
Pectinase.	A enzyme with which flax is treated during linen production to release its cellulose fibers from a sugary,glue like matrix of pectin for spinning.
Protease.	A family of enzymes that breaks down proteins and is commonly used for industrial purposes.
Spoilage.	A process of microbial action on food that renders the food useless,or at least highly undesirable,as a nutritional source.degradation at room or fridge temperature does not usually result in harmful foods.
Streptokinase.	A bacterial enzyme that when injected quickly into a heart attack patient,will break down blood clots and prevent further heart damage.
Abyssal zone.	Deep trenches in the ocean floor where microbes live,but in lower numbers than in other parts of the ocean and in forms that are very different from terrestrial organisms.
Actinomycete.	A group of gram positive bacteria that grow in branching filament structures and are found in most soils ,including deserts.
Ammonification.	The second step in the ammonia cycle wherein proteins are degraded to amino acids and nucleic acids to nucleotides,and these sub units are further degraded to release nitrogen in the form of pneumonia.
Azotobacter.	a free living mutualistic bacterium that grows in root nodules of leguminous plants and fixes nitrogen in areas such as grasslands.Such soils are considered poor in nitrogen because the bacteria fix limited amounts.Grows in root nodules of legumes.
Benthic zone.	The general ocean floor where microbes live,but in lower numbers than in other parts of the ocean and in forms quit different from terrestrial organisms.
Biochemical oxygen demand.(BOD)	A chemical process that measures the oxygen demand by organisms from a body of water;it is conducted by measuring how much oxygen is utilized from a water sample over time.
Bioremediation.	The use of living organisms as a remedy to an environmental problem,such as adding phosphorous and nitrogen to water contaminated with crude oil to encourage the growth of naturally occurring bacteria that degrade crude oil.
Contaminated water.	Water that contains infectious microbes or toxic substances.
Denitrification.	The reduction of nitrate into gaseous nitrogen,often by pseudomonas in the process of anaerobic respiration.
Eutrophy.	Changes in an area of water that render it inhospitable to animal life,such as when microbes metabolize the available oxygen in a location.
Greenhouse effect.	A name for global warming,or climate change,that refers to he way in which the earth heat is held inside the atmosphere,much as heat is held within a green house.
Lichens.	Mutualistic groups of algae and fungi wherein fungi protect the algae and help them nutritionally,while the algae fix nitrogen from the air into forms used by the fungi and also provide organic nutrients for the fungi.
Liquid phase.	A step in the sewage treatment process.
Littoral zone.	A segment of ocean that is near the shoreline and contains most of the nutrients and microorganisms.
Mycorrhizae.	A fungal group that grows mutualistically with plant roots.
Nitrification.	The synthesis of nitrate,which is accomplished in steps 3 and 4 of the nitrogen cycle by bacteria of the genuses Nitrosomona and Nitrobacter,respectively
Nitrogen fixation.	The reclamation of nitrogen gas from the atmosphere by bacteria such as Azotobacter and Rhizobium.
Polluted water.	Water that contains obvious contaminates as indicated by its appearance,smell,etc.
Potable water.	Water that is fit to drink.
Rhizobium.	Bacteria that use much energy to convert nitrogen gas into ammonia and then into amino acids and nucleotides,which results in very efficient nitrogen fixation that produces more than enough for the bacteria and the host plant.
Sewage treatment.	A process that degrades and removes particulate matter from the water and kills harmful Microorganisms.
Sludge.	Solids left over after a water treatment.
Water purification.	Any process of cleaning water for use by humans,including the removal of gravel,harmful chemicals,and microbes by the use of filtration and chemical processes.
Organisms involved in food spoilage.	Usually bacteria that prefer to grow at cooler temperatures including a few psychrotrophs that grow at around 8 degrees celsius, or molds that prefer to grow a cooler temperatures.
Fermentation.	Microbial action on food that is beneficial.The intentional spoiling of food.
Property's of industrial microbes.	Metabolism specific to a given genus and species but is highly diverse within the various kinds known.Easy to obtain large numbers of them as they grow rapidly.They grow on inexpensive media and can be manipulated genetically to produce many products.
Proteases.	Used to remove unwanted tissue in tanning hides,the breakdown of blood in laundry detergent, and breakdown of tough meat fibers in meat tenderizer.
Explain microbes in vitamin production.	One mold produces large quantities of vitamin b2 and several bacteria overproduce vitamin b12 cyanocobalamin.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae.	Yeast which produces large amounts of carbon dioxide from fruit sugar found in fruit juices which results in the anaerobic needed for fermenting pyruvic acid to alcohol.(winemaking)
Dark beer fermented with?	Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Light beer fermented with?	Saccharomyces carlsbergensis.
Common psychrotrophic bacteria found in the refrigerator?	Pseudomonas along with some species of bacillus.
Leuconostoc?	Gram positive rod that naturally grows on cabbage and breaks carbohydrates into organic acids to reduce ph below 4 and produce aromas and diacetyl(The flavor in butter).Used in Sauerkraut and pickle production.
Heterolactic fermentation.	A type of fermentation that involves lactic,acetic,propionic and other mixed organic acids.
Lactobacillus.	Gram positive rods that produce lactic acid in sauerkraut and pickles.
Vinegar?	Results from yeast fermentation of fruit juices to alcohol followed by the action of Acetobacter aceti to convert the alcohol into acetic acid (vinegar's principle acid).
Acetobacter aceti?	Can convert alcohol into acetic acid.
Enterobacter aerogenes.	Gram negative,produces enough carbon dioxide to produce an anaerobic environment in pickle production.
Streptococcus cremoris and leuconostoc.	Used to make sour cream and buttermilk from cream and skim milk respectively.
Lactobacillus and Streptococcus thermophilus.	Yogurt is thickened ,flavored ,and made tart by the action of these bacteria.
Eating yogurt can.	Help reestablish lactobacillus in the vaginal tract of women who have had broad spectrum antibiotic treatment. Lactobacilli lower vaginal ph and produces hydrogen peroxide which inhibits many pathogens.
Lactobacillus and propionibacterium?	Used to make Swiss cheese by producing lactic acid and carbon dioxide respectively.
Penicillium roqueforti.	A mold used to make Rouquefort cheese.
Penicillium camemberti.	A mold used to make Camembert cheese.
Properties of microbes that make them ideal for industrial processes.	Microbial metabolism is specific to genus and species,microbes grow rapidly,they are inexpensive,they can be manipulated genetically to produce different fermentation products or produce at higher levels.They carry out wide range of enzymatic processes.
Aspergillus niger.	A mold that produces citric acid.
Penicillium.	Used to make penicillin for medical treatment.It has been mutated to produce larger quantities of the antibiotic.
Bacterial genus streptomyces.	Produce a wide variety of antibiotics in current use.They have been mutated to produce up to 100 times more antibiotic.
Name the genera of organism used to make sauerkraut.	Leuconostoc which produces acids,aromas,and flavor and lactobacillus which produces lactic acid dropping the ph to about 2.
What is done to the microbes that produce alcoholic drinks in the last phase of production?	They are killed by pasteurization or removed by filtration.
How can gene cloning be used to protect plants from insects.	Monsanto has cloned the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis toxin gene into plants of commercial value.It is a crystalline endotoxin produced during sporalation that becomes activated by high insect gut ph.
Biochemical oxygen demand.(BOD)	Measuring how much oxygen is being used up in a water sample over time to determine microbial numbers.
Step 1 of water purification.	Sedimentation is used first to remove granular materials such as gravel and chemical aggregates.
Step 2 of water purification.	Aluminum sulfate (Alum) is added to form a gel like mass that collects many microbes as it settles to the bottom.
Step 3 water purification.	The aqueous layer is filtered through sand.
Step 4 water purification.	The water is chlorinated sufficiently to kill microbes with some killing power to kill microbes that enter water later.
Step 5 water purification.	Protozoans are resistant to chlorination so diatomaceous earth is used as a additional filter layer to catch them.
Carbon cycle.	Plants take carbon dioxide from the air and make organic molecules,animals consume the plants releasing the carbon dioxide,and plants re obtain the carbon dioxide.
Cytophaga group of bacteria.	Degrades cellulose, a very difficult to degrade carbohydrate.
Step 1 of the nitrogen cycle.	Nitrogen in molecules of protein and nucleic acids.
Step 2 of nitrogen cycle.	Ammonification were proteins are degraded to amino acids and nucleic acids into nuleotides. These sub units are further degraded to release nitrogen in the form of ammonia.
Step 3 of the nitrogen cycle.	Bacteria of the genus Nitrosomonas oxidize (add oxygen atoms to)the ammonia nitrite.
Step 4 of the nitrogen cycle.	Bacteria of the genus Nitrobacter oxidize (add oxygen atoms to)nitrite to nitrate.
Nitrification mechanics.	Steps 3 and 4 of the nitrogen cycle were bacteria of the genus Nitrosomonas oxidize ammonia to nitrite and bacteria of the genus nitrobacter oxidize nitrite to nitrate.
Nitrate is important to plants because?	They need it to synthesize their organic amino acids and nucleotides.
How do animals get their nitrogen?	By eating plants.
Denitrification mechanics.	Some anaerobic bacteria as well as pseudomonas an obligate aerobe can utilize nitrate in place of o2 in anaerobic respiration.In doing so they form nitrogen gas which is released into the atmosphere and lost from availability from plants and animals.
What is the purpose of alum in water purification?	It forms a gel that microbes stick to as the gel settles out and removes them.
What digest the cellulose of wood in termites.	Protozoa digest the cellulose of wood in termites.
What type of organism produces methane.	Archae.

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