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Big Idea 2
AP Biology Vocabulary
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| acetyl-CoA | A product of the citric acid cycle of cellular respiration, formed from a fragment of pyruvate after it enters the mitochondria. |
| ADP | Adenosine diphosphate, which consists of a sugar backbone attached to a molecule of adenosine and two phosphate groups. |
| aerobic respiration | Cellular respiration that occurs with the presence of oxygen. |
| alcohol fermentation | Fermentation that occurs during anaerobic respiration, where pyruvate is converted into ethanol. |
| anaerobic respiration | Cellular respiration that lacks oxygen; occurs instead by fermentation. |
| ATP | Adenosine triphosphate, which consists of a sugar backbone attached to a molecule of adenosine and three phosphates. ATP is the most common means of transporting energy in metabolism. |
| abiotic factors | Non-living properties of an environment, physical and chemical. |
| absorption spectrum | The range of a pigment’s ability to absorb light; the interval of wavelengths that a material can gain energy from. |
| action spectrum | The rate of physiological activity compared to the different wavelengths of light in photosynthesis. |
| activation energy | The minimal amount of energy that must be put into a system to allow a chemical reaction to occur. |
| active site | The part of an enzyme where substrate molecules can bind. |
| active transport | Transport of material against its concentration gradient, usually across a membrane, that requires energy. |
| adhesion | The ability or tendency of a substance to cling to another surface. |
| alcohol | Any organic compound with one or more hydroxyl groups attached to an alkyl group. In biology, the most common alcohols are ethyl alcohol and methanol. |
| allosteric regulation | The alteration of a protein’s function due to the presence of a regulatory molecule. |
| amphipathic | The characteristic of having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts. |
| amplification | Increased stimulus energy during an reaction, often the effect of an enzyme. |
| anabolism | A building process that requires energy (the opposite of a breakdown process, which releases energy). |
| antibodies | Protective proteins produced in response to antigens (foreign substances) in the immune system. |
| antigens | A foreign substance that induces an immune response. |
| apoptosis | Programmed cell death to prevent further damage to the single cell or cells around it. |
| autotroph | Autotroph- An organism that produces complex organic compounds from simpler substances by harnessing sunlight or chemical energy; autotrophs can “provide” energy for themselves. |
| B cells | A type of lymphocyte developed in the bone marrow; memory cells involved in the humoral immune system. |
| bioenergetics | The study of energy flow throughout living systems and the management of energy resources. |
| biotic factors | Living properties of an environment. |
| building blocks | Any small substances used in the formation of more complex substances. |
| calvin cycle | A step in photosynthesis in which carbon is fixed and glucose is formed after every two complete cycles. |
| carbon compound | Any chemical substance that contains carbon. |
| carbon fixation | The process by which carbon is incorporated into organic compounds. |
| carotenes | Carotenoids that contain no oxygen. |
| carotenoid | An accessory pigment found in chloroplasts of plant cells that absorbs wavelengths that chlorophyll cannot, thus increasing the spectrum of light usable in photosynthesis. |
| catabolism | A breakdown process in which energy is released. |
| catalyst | An agent used to increase the rate of a chemical reaction without being consumed; enzymes are catalysts. |
| cell-differentiation | The divergence of cells in both structure and function during specialization. |
| cell-mediated response | In the immune system, a response that does not involve antibodies, but instead of the release of phagocytes, T-cells, and cytokines. |
| cellular respiration | The conversion of oxygen and glucose into carbon dioxide and water for the production of energy. |
| cell wall | A protective and structural layer around the cell membrane, found on plant cells, algae, and some bacteria. |
| channel protein | Transmembrane proteins found in the phospholipid bilayer of cell membranes. |
| chemiosmosis | The movement of ions across a cell membrane down their electrochemical gradient (through diffusion); the process by which hydrogen pumps move protons into the thylakoid membrane. |
| chemoautotroph | Organisms that derive energy from chemical reactions and synthesize organic compounds from carbon dioxide. |
| chemosynthesis | An alternative to photosynthesis, the biological conversion of carbon molecules and other nutrients into organic matter through the use of inorganic molecules or methane rather than sunlight. |
| chlorophyll | A pigment used in photosynthesis to absorb wavelengths of light (and thus obtain energy); found in cyanobacteria and in the chloroplasts of plants. |
| chloroplast | Organelles of plant cells that conduct photosynthesis and fatty acid synthesis. |
| chromatin | A complex of DNA and proteins found in the nucleus. |
| chromosome | A structure found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells that contains genetic information in the form of one long DNA molecule and multiple proteins. |
| circadian rhythms | Internal rhythms that are endogenious, intrainable, exhibit temperature compensation, and last for twenty-four hour intervals. |
| cis-face | The earliest part of the Golgi Apparatus reached by substances from the endoplasmic reticulum. |
| cisternae | The flattened membrane disks that make up the Golgi Apparatus; these carry enzymes and structural proteins. |
| cohesion | The tendency of molecules to cling to each other. |
| commensalism | A relationship between two organisms where one benefits while the other is unaffected. |
| compartmentalization | The separation of components of a cell with membranes. |
| competitive inhibitors | Inhibitors that bind to an enzyme at a location other than its active site, changing the enzyme’s shape to block the binding of a substrate. |
| contractile vacuoles | Organelle sacs used for removing excess water from cells. |
| cristae | Folds of the inner membrane of mitochondria. |
| cyclic phosphorylation | In the stroma, the process of photosynthesis in which ATP is made but no oxygen or NADPH is produced, and H2O molecules are not split. |
| cytoplasm | The cytosol and all of the organelles contained within. |
| cytoplasmic streaming | The movement of the cytoplasm that allows organelles to interact. |
| cytoskeleton | The cellular scaffolding within a cell’s cytoplasm that can form cilia and flagella; it also aids in intracellular transportation and division. |
| cytotoxic T cells | Also known as killer T cells, these lymphocytes kill cancer cells, infected cells, and other cells that may be harmful. |
| defense mechanism | Any method, internal or external, that can be used as protection of an organism. |
| dehydration | A lack of water; dehydration synthesis is characterized by the loss of an H2O molecule. |
| denaturation | An alteration in the structure of a protein; denaturation can be prompted by a change in pH, salinity, or temperature. |
| diffusion | A spontaneous process, diffusion is the tendency of molecules in a substance to “spread out” and move down their concentration gradient. |
| dynamic homeostasis | Regulations of an internal environment in order to maintain a stable environment in the face of changing external environments. |
| ectothermy | The characteristic of obtaining heat from external sources; an organism whose temperature is regulated by its environment is considered ectothermic. |
| electrochemical gradient | The diffusion gradient of an ion that takes into consideration the contrast of concentrations of the ion as well as the ion’s tendency to move against the membrane. |
| electron transport chain | Found in both photosynthesis and cellular respiration, the ETC couples electron transfer between a donor and an acceptor. |
| embryonic induction | The process by which tissues present in the embryo influence the development of other tissues. |
| endergonic | In an endergonic reaction, energy is absorbed; the reaction is considered “non-spontaneous.” |
| endocytosis | The cellular uptake of matter through the formation of vesicles from the plasma membrane. |
| endomembrane system | The complex of multiple membranes within the cytosol of eukaryotic cells that divide into different organelles. |
| endoplasmic reticulum | Composed of both smooth and rough sections, the ____ is a membrane system of flattened sacs involved in the synthesis, processing, and transport of proteins and lipids. |
| endothermy | The characteristic of generating heat through internal metabolism, independent of the external environment. |
| energy coupling | The use of energy released from an exergonic reaction to drive an endergonic reaction. |
| enthalpy | Order, or complexity; overall _______ in the universe is constantly decreasing. |
| entropy | Disorder, or simplicity; overall _______ in the universe is constantly increasing. |
| enzyme | A reusable protein (or ribosome) that catalyzes a chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy. |
| enzyme-substrate complex | The formation that is created when a substrate binds to an enzyme. |
| eukaryotic cell | A cell that contains membrane-bound organelles, including a nucleus. |
| exergonic | In an endergonic reaction, energy is released; the reaction is considered “spontaneous.” |
| exocytosis | The cellular release of matter through the fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane. |
| feedback mechanism | A means of regulation in which the output of a system returns as input to influence further output, either increasing or decreasing its production. |
| fermentation | An anaerobic process by which ATP is made from glucose without the use of an electron transport chain, and lactic acid or ethanol is produced. |
| first law of thermodynamics | __________ states that energy is only transformed, and cannot be produced or destroyed. |
| fluid mosaic model | The model of a cellular membrane in which protein molecules constantly move throughout a phospholipid bilayer. |
| free energy | Also known as “available energy,” the portion of energy that can perform work. ΔG = ΔH – TΔS is the equation used, where delta G represents _________. If G is negative, the reaction is spontaneous. |
| gene | A unit of information consisting of a sequence of nucleotides in DNA or RNA. |
| gene-expression | The process by which sequences of nucleotides control the synthesis of proteins. |
| glycerol | A compound with three hydroxyl groups. |
| glycolipid | A lipid with covalently attached carbohydrates, found in membranes. |
| glycolysis | The process in cellular respiration by which glucose is converted to pyruvate. |
| glycoprotein | A protein with covalently attached carbohydrates, found in membranes. |
| golgi apparatus | An organelle found in eukaryotic cells that packages proteins. |
| grana | Thylakoid stacks within the chloroplast of plant cells. |
| heat | The spontaneous flow of energy from one object to another down a gradient, following the first law of thermodynamics. |
| heat of vaporization | The energy required to transform a liquid into a gas. |
| heat of fusion | The change in enthalpy that results from heating a given quantity of a substance to change it from a solid to a liquid. |
| heterotroph | An organism that cannot fix carbon and must instead obtain energy from organic carbon provided by producers. |
| homeotic genes | Genes that influence structural development, such as the HOX genes. |
| humoral response | In the immune system, the response to antigens by which B cells produce antibodies. |
| hydrophilic | Having an affinity for water. |
| hydrophobic | Having an aversion to water. |
| hypertonic | Having a greater concentration of any given substance. |
| hypotonic | Having a lesser concentration of any given substance. |
| immunoglobulin | Protective proteins produced in response to antigens (foreign substances) in the immune system. |
| immunological response | A defensive response to any foreign, unwanted substance in an organism. |
| induced fit model | The model of the change in shape of the active site of an enzyme induced by the presence of a substrate. |
| infection | The invasion of a host by a foreign organism such as a virus, prion, bacteria, or fungi. |
| innate behaviors | Behaviors that are fixed during development by genes. |
| inorganic | Compounds that lack carbon and hydrogen are inorganic. |
| isotonic | Having an equal concentration of any given substance with another area. |
| kinesis | A change in activity or movement in response to a stimulus. |
| kinetic energy | The energy an object possesses due to its motion. |
| krebs cycle | Also known as the “citric acid cycle,” the step in cellular respiration by which pyruvate is oxidized into carbon dioxide. |
| lactic acid fermentation | The anaerobic process that follows glycolysis and converts pyruvate to lactate. |
| learned behaviors | Behaviors that are learned during an organism’s lifetime, and may vary from individual to individual. |
| light-dependent reactions | The first steps of photosynthesis in which light wavelengths are absorbed by chlorophyll and solar energy is converted to chemical energy of ATP and NADPH. |
| lock and key hypothesis | The false hypothesis that a substrate must precisely fit the active site of an enzyme (contradicted by the induced fit model). |
| lymphocyte | A type of white blood cell that mediates acquired immunity. |
| lysosomes | Organelles responsible for digestion of waste and other materials, as well as the engulfment of viruses and bacteria. |
| macromolecule | A large molecule created by the polymerization of smaller units; include proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acids. |
| mast cells | Cells involved with allergy defense, generally known for releasing histamines, but can also release hormonal mediators and cytokines. |
| membrane | A thin structure that separates two fluids and may or may not permit the passage of substances. |
| mesophyll | Tissue in the interior of leaves that houses chloroplasts. |
| metabolism | The total amount of chemical reactions that occur to manage materials and energy within an organism. |
| mitochondria | An organelle in eukaryotic cells that serves as the main site of cellular respiration, where ATP is generated; has its own DNA, supporting the endosymbiosis theory. |
| morphogenesis | The development of shape and structure in an organism. |
| mutation | Any change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA. |
| natural killer cells | Cells in the immune system that destroy any foreign substances, as well as host cells that contain them. |
| negative feedback | A feedback mechanism in which the output of a process limits future output. |
| noncyclic photophosphorylation | In the thylakoid, a process in which photosystem II performs photolysis in order for ATP to be produced. |
| nonspecific immunity | Also known as the “innate immune system,” consists of the first line of defense (skin and mucus) as well as nonspecific patrolling cells. |
| nuclear envelope | The membrane in eukaryotic cells that encloses the nucleus. |
| nuclear lamina | The array of protein filaments that line the inner surface of the nuclear envelope. |
| nuclear pores | Large protein complexes embedded in the nuclear envelope. |
| nucleic acid | A macromolecule of nucleotide sequences that form DNA or RNA through phosphodiester bonds. |
| nucleolus | A small, dense region of chromatin and ribosomal RNA and proteins; the site of initial protein synthesis. |
| organic | Compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen molecules. |
| organelle | A membrane-enclosed structure within eukaryotic cells that performs certain tasks. |
| osmosis | The diffusion of water across a membrane. |
| oxidation | The loss of electrons. |
| oxidizing agent | A molecule capable of accepting elections. |
| p680 | Photosystem II primary donor, a type of reaction-center chlorophyll. |
| p700 | Photosystem I primary donor, a reaction-center chlorophyll a molecule. |
| passive transport | Any diffusion of a substance without the expenditure of energy; the opposite of active transport. |
| pathogen | An organism or virus that can cause a disease. |
| peroxisome | Organelles that serve in digesting, catabolizing fatty acids, amino acids, phospholipids (etc); capable of producing hydrogen peroxide. |
| phagocyte | In the immune system, a type of white blood cell that consumes harmful foreign particles, bacteria, and dead cells. |
| phagocytosis | “Cell eating,” a type of endocytosis in which large particles are taken up by another cell. |
| phloem | A type of tissue in vascular plants that transports nutrients such as sucrose. |
| phosphorylation | The addition of a phosphate group to an organic molecule. |
| photoautotrophs | Organisms that use light energy to carry out metabolic processes and have the ability to fix carbon. |
| photolysis | Chemical decomposition induced by light energy that occurs in the thylakoid of plant cells. |
| photomorphogenesis | The effects of light on the structure of plants and the direction in which they grow. |
| photoperiodism | Any physiological response to the lengths of night and day. |
| photosynthesis | The process by which carbon dioxide and water are converted to oxygen and glucose with the use of light energy. |
| photosystems I and II | The light-capturing units found in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts; a major component of photosynthesis. |
| phototropism | Growth of a plant shoot in relation to the light source. |
| phyla | The taxonomic rank between kingdom and class. |
| pigments | Molecules that absorb and reflect light. |
| pinocytosis | “Cell drinking,” a form of endocytosis in which small particles form an invagination in a cell and then are suspended within vesicles until their breakdown by lysosomes. |
| plasmolysis | The process in which the cytoplasm pulls away from the cell wall of plant cells due to water loss. |
| positive feedback | A feedback mechanism in which the output of a process increases further output. |
| potential energy | The energy stored in a system or object due to its position. |
| primary electron acceptor | During photosynthesis, a specialized molecule that accepts electrons before they can return to ground state in chlorophyll. |
| prokaryotic cell | A cell that lacks a specific nucleus, as well as lacking membrane-bound organelles. |
| proton motive force | Energy made available by the movement of hydrogen ions across membranes during chemiosmosis, creating an electrochemical gradient. |
| quorum sensing | The method by which many unicellular organisms work together to perform the functions of a large multicellular organism. |
| reaction center | The location of light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. |
| redox reactions | The transfer of electrons from one reactant to another. |
| reducing agent | A molecule capable of donating an electron; molecules that lose electrons are oxidized. |
| reduction | The gaining of electrons. |
| rubisco | A protein, and more specifically an enzyme, involved in carbon fixation during the calvin cycle of photosynthesis. |
| saturated fatty acid | A fatty acid with no double bonds, thus “saturated” with hydrogens; solid at room temperature. |
| second law of thermodynamics | The __________ states that entropy in the universe is always increasing. |
| selective permeability | The ability of a membrane to regulate what substances pass through it. |
| sodium-potassium pump | A means of active transport in which sodium and potassium ions are moved across a cell membrane with energy provided by ATP hydrolysis; contributes to action potential produced by nerve cells. |
| specific heat | The amount of heat required to change a measure of a substance by one degree in temperature. |
| specific immunity | Immunity generated through the use of memory B cells and the antibodies they create in the first encounter with a foreign substance. |
| starch | A type of carbohydrate used for energy storage in plant cells. |
| steroid | A type of lipid with a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings. |
| stomata | Pores in leaves where carbon dioxide can enter and oxygen and water can escape. |
| stroma | The fluid found between grana within the chloroplast of plant cells. |
| substrate-level phosphorylation | The process in which an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate. |
| surface area | The total area of the faces of a solid figure. |
| symbiosis | The umbrella term for all direct interactions between two or more different species. |
| T cells | ________ develop in the thymus and are involved in cell-mediated immunity; there are many types of ________, such as helper, cytotoxic, memory, and natural killer cells. |
| taxis | An innate behavioral response by an organism, characterized by a change in direction to or away from a stimulus. |
| thermal energy | A type of kinetic energy that is related to the substance’s temperature. |
| thermoregulation | The ability of an organism to regulate its internal temperature in order to maintain homeostasis. |
| thylakoids | Flattened membranes within the chloroplast of plant cells; the site of light-dependent reactions during photosynthesis. |
| trans-face | The end of the Golgi Apparatus, where packaged molecules depart. |
| unsaturated fatty acid | A fatty acid that contains one or more double bonds between carbon atoms; liquid at room temperature. |
| vacuole | A membrane-bound organelle found in all plant cells (can be found in other types of cells as well) that serves to store water or waste, maintain an internal acidic pH, and export waste from the cell. |
| vesicle | A membrane-enclosed sac used for transport of substances in and out of a cell. |
| veins | Collections of xylem and phloem in leaves. |
| volume | The quantity of space within a three-dimensional structure. |
| xanthophylls | Carotenoids that contain oxygen. |
| xylem | A type of transport tissue in vascular plants that serves to transport water and nutrients. |
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