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Natty Psych final
Ch 7, 8, 9
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Learning | a process by which experience produces a relatively enduring change in an organism's behavior or capabilities |
| Classical Conditioning* | when two stimuli become associated with one another, such that one stimulus now triggers a response that previously was triggered by the other stimulus |
| Operant Conditioning* | Organisms learn to associate their responses with specific consequences. So punish behaviors you want to discourage and reward behaviors you want to encourage. |
| Observational Learning* | Observers imitate the behavior of a model |
| personal adaptation | focus on how an organism's behavior changes in response to environmental stimuli encountered during its lifetime |
| Habituation | a decrease in the strength of response to a repeated stimulus |
| Aquisition* | (CC) the period during which a response is being learned |
| Neutral Stimulus* | (CC) stimulus that does not elicit the desired response |
| Unconditioned Stimulus* | (CC) stimulus that elicits a reflexive or innate response without prior learning |
| Unconditioned Response* | (CC) a reflexive or innate response that is elicited by a stimulus without prior learning |
| Conditioned Stimulus* | (CC) a stimulus that, through association with a UCS, comes to elicit a conditioned response similar to the original UCR |
| Conditioned Response* | (CC) a response elicited by a conditioned stimulus |
| Extinction* | (CC) a process in which the CS is presented repeatedly in the absence of the UCS, causing the CR to weaken and eventually disappear |
| Spontaneous Recovery* | (CC) the reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a rest period and without new learning trials |
| Stimulus Generalization* | (CC) stimuli similar to the initial CS elicit a CR. Like little Albert. |
| Stimulus Discrimination* | (CC) when a CR occurs to one stimulus but not to others |
| Higher-Order Conditioning | (CC) a neutral stimulus becomes a CS after being paired with an already established CS |
| Exposure Therapies | a patient is exposed to a stimulus that arouses an anxiety response without the presence of the UCS, allowing extinction to occur |
| Aversion Therapy* (Garcia effect) | attempts to condition an aversion to a stimulus that triggers unwanted behavior by pairing it with a noxious UCS. Garcia effect is with wolves |
| Anticipatory Nausea and Vomiting | a person becomes nauseated and may vomit anywhere from minutes to hours before a treatment session |
| Operant Conditioning* | a type of learning in which behavior is influenced by the consequences that follow it |
| Law of Effect | in a given situation, a response followed by a satisfying consequence will become more likely to occur and a response followed by an annoying consequence will become less likely to occur |
| Skinner Box* | a special chamber used to study operant conditioning experimentally |
| Reinforcement* | a response is strengthened by an outcome that follows it |
| Punishment* | occurs when a response is weakened by outcomes that follow it |
| Skinner's 3 part contingency | antecedents, behaviors, and a consequences |
| Contingency | relation between the behavior and the consequence |
| Discriminative Stimulus | a signal that a particular response will now produce certain consequences |
| Positive Reinforcement* | occurs when a response is strengthened by the subsequent presentation of a stimulus |
| Primary Reinforcers* | stimuli, such as food and water, that an organism naturally finds reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs |
| Secondary (conditioned) Reinforcers* | stimuli, like money, that acquire reinforcing properties through their association with primary reinforcers |
| Negative Reinforcement* | a response is strengthened by the subsequent removal (or avoidance) of an aversive stimulus (advil and headaches) |
| Operant Extinction* | the weakening and eventual disappearance of a response because it is no longer reinforced |
| Aversive Punishment (aka positive punishment aka punishment by application)* | a response is weakened by the subsequent presentation of a stimulus (spanking) |
| Response Cost (aka negative punishment aka punishment by removal)* | a response is weakened by the subsequent removal of a stimulus (toy taken away) |
| Chaining | used to develop a sequence (chain) of responses by reinforcing each response with the opportunity to perform the next response |
| Shaping* | involves reinforcing "successive approximations" toward a final response |
| Operant generalization* | an operant response to a new antecedent stimulus or situation that is similar to the original one (not touching any stovetops) |
| Operant discrimination* | an operant response will occur to one antecedent stimulus but not another (only stealing cookies when parents arent around) |
| Stimulus control | a behavior that is influenced by discriminative stimuli (police car present) |
| Continuous reinforcement* | every response of a particular type is reinforced |
| Partial (intermittent) reinforcement* | only a portion of the responses of a particular type are reinforced |
| Fixed Ratio Schedule* | reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses |
| Variable Ratio Schedule* | reinforcement is given after a variable number of responses, all centered around an average |
| Fixed Interval Schedule* | the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval is reinforced (studying on a syllabus) |
| Variable Interval Schedule* | reinforcement is given for the first response that occurs after a variable time interval, centered around an average (pop quizzes) |
| Escape Conditioning* | the organism learns a response to terminate an aversive stimulus (put on a hoodie when you're cold) |
| Avoidance Conditioning* | the organism learns a response to avoid an aversive stimulus (wear a hoodie in the first place when you know it's gonna be cold) |
| Two factor theory of avoidance learning | both classical and operant conditioning are involved in avoidance learning |
| Token economies* | desirable behaviors are reinforced with tokens that are later turned in for other reinforcers (money, spin to wins) |
| Applied behavior analysis | combines a behavioral approach with the scientific method to solve individual and societal problems |
| Preparedness* | through evolution, animals are biologically predisposed to learn some associations more easily than others |
| Conditioned taste aversion* | a conditioned response in which the taste (& sometimes the sight and smell) of a particular food becomes disgusting and repulsive |
| Instinctive drift* | the tendency for a conditioned response to drift back toward instinctive behavior |
| Insight | the sudden perception of a useful relationship that helps to solve a problem |
| Cognitive Map | a mental representation of the spatial layout |
| Latent learning | learning that occurs but is not demonstrated until later when there is an incentive to perform |
| Observational Learning* | learning that occurs by observing the behavior of a model. Like bobo doll. |
| Social Cognitive Theory (aka social learning theory)* | emphasizes that people learn by observing the behavior of models and acquiring the belief that they can produce behaviors to influence events in their lives |
| Self-efficacy | peoples belief that they will have the capability to perform behaviors that will produce a desired outcome |
| Memory* | the processes that allow us to record, store, and later retrieve experiences and information |
| Encoding* | getting information into the system by translating it into a neural code that your brain processes |
| Storage* | retaining information over time |
| Retrieval* | processes that access stored information |
| Sensory memory* | briefly holds incoming sensory information. Lasts about 4 seconds |
| Short-term memory* | a memory store that temporarily holds a limited amount of information. Can hold 7 +- 2 bits of capacity. 5-30 seconds. |
| Memory codes | mental representations of some type of information or stimulus |
| Chunking* | combining individual items into larger units of meaning |
| Working memory* | a limited-capacity system that temporarily stores and processes information |
| Long-term memory* | vast library of more durable stored memories |
| Serial position effect* | the ability to recall an item is influenced by the item's position in a series |
| Levels of processing | the more deeply we process information, the better we will remember it |
| Maintenance rehearsal | simple, rote repetition |
| Elaborative rehearsal | focusing on the meaning of the information or expanding (elaborating) on it in some way |
| Dual coding theory | encoding information using both verbal and visual codes enhances memory because the odds improve that at least one of the codes will be available later to support recall |
| Method of Loci* | a memory aid that associates information with mental images of physical locations |
| Mnemonic Device* | a memory aid (like acronyms) |
| Schema* | mental framework - an organized pattern of thought - about some aspect of the world |
| Mnemonist (or memorist) | a person who displays extraordinary memory skills |
| Associative network* | a massive network of associated ideas and concepts |
| Priming* | the activation of one concept (or one unit of information) by another |
| Neural network (connectionist) models | each memory is represented by a unique pattern of interconnected and simultaneously activated nodes |
| Parallel distributed processing (PDP) models | neural network (connectionist) models |
| Declarative memory | involves factual knowledge and includes episodic and semantic memory |
| Episodic memory* | store of knowledge concerning personal experiences: when, where, and what happened in the episodes of our lives |
| Semantic memory* | general factual knowledge about the wold and language, including memory for words and concepts |
| Procedural (nondeclarative) memory* | reflected in skills and actions |
| Explicit memory* | involves conscious or intentional memory retrieval, as when you consciously recognize or recall something |
| Implicit memory* | occurs when memory influences our behavior without conscious awareness |
| Retrieval cue | a stimulus, whether internal or external, that activates information stored in long-term memory |
| Autobiographical memories | recollections of personally experienced events that make up the stories of our lives |
| Flashbulb memories* | recollections that seem so vivid, so clear, that we picture them as if they were snapshots of moments in time |
| Endorsing specificity principle | memory is enhanced when conditions present during retrieval match those that were present during encoding |
| Context-dependent memory | it typically is easier to remember something in the same environment in which it was originally encoded |
| State-dependent memory | our ability to retrieve information is greater when our internal state at the time of retrieval matches our original state during learning |
| Mood-congruent recall | we tend to recall information or events that are congruent with our current mood |
| Decay theory | with time and disuse, the long-term physical memory trace in the nervous system fades away |
| Proactive interference | occurs when material learned in the past interferes with recall of newer material |
| Retroactive interference | occurs when newly acquired information interferes with the ability to recall information learned at an earlier time |
| Tip of the tongue state (TOT)* | we cannot recall something but feel that we are on the verge of remembering it |
| Repression* | a motivational process that protects us by blocking the conscious recall of anxiety-arousing memories |
| Prospective memory | concerns remembering to perform an activity in the future |
| Retrograde amnesia* | memory loss for events that took place sometime in life before the onset of amnesia |
| Anterograde amnesia* | memory loss for events that occur after the initial onset of amnesia |
| Dementia | impaired memory and other cognitive deficits that accompany brain degeneration and interfere with normal functioning |
| Alzheimer's disease | a progressive brain disorder that is the most common cause of dementia among adults over the age of 65 |
| Infantile (childhood) amnesia | memory loss for early experiences |
| Misinformation effect | the distortion of a memory by misleading postevent information |
| Source confusion (/monitoring) | our tendency to recall something or recognize it as familiar but to forget where we encountered it |
| Memory consolidation | hypothetical and gradual binding process |
| Long term ponteniation (LTP) | enduring increase in synaptic strength |
| Mental representations* | images, ideas, concepts, and principles |
| Language* | a system of symbols and rules for combining these symbols in ways that can generate an infinite number of possible messages and meanings |
| Psycholinguistics | the scientific study of the psychological aspects of language |
| Grammar | the set of rules that dictates how symbols can be combined to create meaningful units of communication |
| Syntax | the rules that govern the order of words |
| Semantics | the meaning of words and sentences |
| Generalivity | the symbols of language can be combined to generate an infinite number of messages that have novel meaning |
| Displacement* | language allows us to communicate about events and objects that are not physically present |
| Surface structure | the symbols that are used and their order |
| Deep structure | underlying meaning of the combined symbols |
| Phoneme* | the smallest unit of speech sound in a language that can signal a difference in meaning |
| Morpheme* | the smallest unit of meaning in a language |
| Discourse* | sentences are combined into paragraphs, articles, books, conversations, and so forth |
| Inductive (bottom-up) processing* | individual elements of a stimulus are analyzed and then combined to form a unified perception. Like sherlock holmes. |
| Deductive (top-down) processing* | sensory information is interpreted in light of existing knowledge, concepts, ideas, and expectations |
| Speech segmentation | perceiving where each word within a spoken sentence begins and ends |
| Pragmatics | a knowledge of the practical aspects of using language |
| Aphasia | an impairment in speech comprehension and/or production |
| Bilingualism | the regular use of two languages |
| Phonological awareness | overall awareness of the sound structure of one's language |
| Linguistic relativity hypothesis | language not only influences but also determines what we are capable of thinking |
| Propositional thought | a thought that expresses a proposition or statement |
| Imaginal thought | thought that consists of images that we can see, hear, or feel in our mind |
| Motoric thought | mental representations of motor movements |
| Propositions | statements that express ideas |
| Concepts | basic units of semantic memory - mental categories into which we place objects, activities, abstractions, and events |
| Prototypes | the most typical and familiar members of a category or class |
| Deductive reasoning* | we reason from the top down, that is, from general principles to a conclusion about a specific case |
| Inductive reasoning* | we reason from the bottom up, starting with specific facts and trying to develop a general principle |
| Belief bias* | the tendency to abandon logical rules in favor of our own personal beliefs. Like young earth geologists, creationists, or homophobes. |
| Framing* | the idea that the same information, problem, or options can be structured and presented in different ways. Like shitty scale bars. |
| Algorithms | formulas or precise sequences of procedures that automatically generate solutions |
| Heuristics* | general problem-solving strategies, similar to mental rules-of-thumb, that we apply to certain classes of situations. Shortcuts. |
| Means-ends analysis | involves identifying differences between the present situation and a desired goal and then making changes to reduce these differences |
| Subgoal analysis | formulating subgoals, or intermediate steps, toward a solution |
| Representativeness heuristic | we think about how closely something fits our prototype for that particular concept, or class, and therefore how likely it is to be a member of that class |
| Availability heuristic | people base judgements and decisions on how easily information is available in memory |
| Confirmation bias* | tending to look for evidence that will confirm what they currently believe rather than looking for evidence that could disconfirm their beliefs |
| Over-confidence | the tendency to overestimate one's correctness in factual knowledge, beliefs, and decisions |
| Divergent thinking | the generation of novel ideas that depart from the norm |
| Functional fixedness | the tendency to be so fixed in their perception of the proper function of an object or procedure that they are blinded to new ways of using it |
| Incubation* | processing a problem, presumably at a subconscious level, while doing some other activity |
| Schema* | a mental framework, an organized pattern of thought about some aspect of the world |
| Script | a mental framework concerning a sequence of events that usually unfolds in a regular, almost standardized order |
| Wisdom | a system of rich, expert knowledge about fundamental matters of life |
| Metacognition* | your awareness and understanding of your own cognitive abilities |
| Mental image | a representation of a stimulus that originates inside your brain, rather than from external sensory input |
| Beyond Freedom and Dignity* | Skinner's book for a larger audience, which talks about how human freedom is an illusion. And about how we as a society need to set up rewards and punishments to make ourselves better |
| magazine training* | reinforcement of successive approximations of the desired behavior. Like pigeon pong. |
| system 1 – fast thinking* | • unconscious thinking • snap judgments • emotionally based • based on past events • often wrong |
| system 2 – slow thinking* | • checking facts • rational • slow and conscious • less likely to be wrong • easily distractible • people who are not prejudice are more system 2 |
| Heuristics types* | Vividness, Availability, Intuition, Loss Aversion, |
| Metacognition* | your awareness and understanding of your own cognitive abilities |
| metacomprehension* | accuracy in judging what you do or do not understand |
| Language and the brain* | -Broca’s area, word production and articulation -Wernice’s area, speech comprehension -Visual cortex, processing written letters/words |
| Nonverbal communication and dating* | Approach, Talk, Face one another, Touch, Synchronize movement. |
| Declarative memory* | o personally experienced events (episodic memory) • amnesia patients forget this (names of friends and family, etc.) o facts – general knowledge (semantic memory) • where celebrities were born |
| Procedural (nondeclarative) memory* | o skills – motor and cognitive • how to ride a bike, read a map, write, etc. o classical conditioning effects • …being scared of dogs? |
| Pollyanna Principle* | Pleasant things fade more slowly than unpleasant things. |
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