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Bio 1B
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Gradualism | Profound change is the cumulative product of slow and continuous changes |
| Uniformitarianism | Assumption that the same laws and processes that exist today have existed in the past |
| Homologous Structure | Structure between two species that was present in last common ancestor |
| Analogous Structure | Structures between two species that are similar but have evolved separately |
| Morphological Convergence | Environmental pressures cause two species to develop very similar traits |
| Fecundity | Ability to reproduce |
| Vestigial Structure | Structures in a species which have lost most or all of their function over time |
| Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium | Assumption that the allele frequencies in a population will reach and stay at equilibrium over time, assuming proper conditions. |
| HW Equilibrium Assumptions | Large, isolated population. No mutations or natural selection. Random Mating. |
| Microevolution | Change in allele frequencies over time in a population |
| Macroevolution | Change in allele frequencies above the species level |
| Genetic Drift | Change in allele frequencies in a population due to random sampling |
| Gene Flow | Transfer of alleles between populations |
| Founder Effect | Lack of genetic variation in a population due to its founding by a small number of individuals |
| Bottleneck Effect | Size reduction of an existing population (usually a catastrophe) |
| Non-Random Mating | Sexual preference based on traits (usually like traits) |
| Directional Selection | A single phenotype is favored and its allele frequency increases over time |
| Stabilizing Selection | Population stabilizes on a specific trait value, reducing genetic variation |
| Disruptive Selection | Extreme values of a trait are favored, increasing variance of trait and creating two separate groups |
| Frequency Dependent Selection | Fitness of a phenotype is dependent on its frequency relative to other phenotypes in a population (i.e. scales on side of fish) |
| Intersexual Selection | Female chooses mate based on traits (bright colors, etc) |
| Intrasexual Selection | Competition within same gender (locking horns, etc) |
| Cladistics | Classification based on evolutionary history; shown in cladogram |
| Phylogeny | Cladogram including spacing relative to time |
| Node | Point at which two taxa diverge |
| Polytomy | Point at which more than two taxa diverge |
| Derived Character | Trait that arose in the most recent member of a group, and was not present in its ancestors |
| Ancestral Character | Trait that arose in the most recent common ancestor of a group, and was passed on to its descendants |
| Apomorphy | Derived character – New Trait |
| Synapomorphy | Derived character shared in a taxa; also present in most common ancestor, but NOT its immediate ancestor. |
| Plesiomorphy | Ancestral character – Trait present in recent common ancestor |
| Symplesiomorphy | Ancestral character shared in a taxa; also present in most common ancestor and its ancestors |
| Homoplasy | Structure that evolved independently in two lineages (convergence) |
| Monophyletic Group | Includes an ancestor and all of its descendents |
| Polyphyletic Group | Excludes an ancestor of some of its taxa |
| Paraphyletic Group | Excludes some descendants of present ancestors |
| Parsimony Analysis | Counts transitions in cladograms; seeks to find cladogram with fewest transitions |
| Species Concepts | Typological, Morphological, Biological, Phylogenetic |
| Typological Species Concept | Species are decided based on clusters of phenotypes/characters |
| Morphological Species Concept | Species are decided based on a common appearance |
| Biological Species Concept | Species is defined as a population whose members have the potential to interbreed and produce viable offspring |
| Phylogenetic Species Concept | Species is defined as the smallest monophyletic group recognized in a classification |
| Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms | Mechanisms by which species will be unable to reproduce. Prezygotic "isolation" and postzygotic mechanisms |
| Habitat Isolation | Two viable species do not have overlapping habitats |
| Temporal Isolation | Two viable species do not reproduce at the same time of year |
| Behavioral Isolation | Two viable species will not reproduce to behavioral (i.e. courtship) imcompatibility |
| Mechanical Isolation | Two species' sexual organs are physically incompatible and they are unable to copulate |
| Gametic Isolation | Two species' gametes are incompatible and can't produce offspring |
| Reduced Hybrid Viability | Product of two different species has lower fitness than parents |
| Reduced Hybrid Fertility | Product of two different species is less able to reproduce than parents |
| Hybrid Breakdown | Product of two different species will have less viable offspring than parents (grandchildren are affected) |
| Allopatric Speciation | Speciation that occurs when members of a species become separated and cannot genetically exchange |
| Vicariance | Splitting of a population by a geographic barrier |
| Sympatric Speciation | Speciation within populations that live in the same geographic area |
| Parapatric Populations | Populations which are immediately adjacent but overlap only slightly |
| Peripatric Populations | Populations which are immediately adjacent but do not overlap |
| Polyploidy | A chromosomal alteration where an organism possesses more than two chromosome sets |
| Autopolyploidy | All chromosomes are derived from a single species |
| Allopolyploidy | Chromosomes derive from more than one species |
| Coevolution | Two parties mutually affect each other's evolution |
| Batesian Mimicry | A harmless species mimics the traits of a more harmful species |
| Müllerian Mimicry | Two harmful species mimic each others' traits to ward off predators they don't share |
| Adaptive Radiation | Evolution of a diversely adapted species upon introduction to a new environment |
| Paleontology | The study of prehistoric life and history |
| Taphonomy | The study of the process by which an organism became a fossil |
| Radiometric Dating | Determines age of fossil based on half-life of radioactive isotopes present |
| Miller-Urey Experiment | Experiment that sought to replicate Earth's original conditions for evolutionary study |
| Oxygen Revolution | Starting with cyanobacteria, the atmosphere began to include enough oxygen to support oxygen-breathing life |
| Cambrian Explosion | Rapid appearance of most animal phyla about 530 million years ago – during Paleozoic Era |
| Trace Fossils | Geological records of biological activity, as opposed to body fossils |
| Pangaea | Single supercontinent about 200-300 million years ago |
| Panthalassa | Superocean surrounding Pangaea (supercontinent) |
| Permian-Triassic Extinction (P-Tr) | Massive extinction event about 250 million years ago – Eliminated 96% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial species. Paleozoic ––> Mesozoic |
| Cretaceous-Paleogene Extinction (K-Pg) | Massive extinction event about 66 million years ago – Eliminated all non-avian dinosaurs, and about 75% of all animal and plant populations. Mesozoic ––> Cenozoic |
| Chicxulub Crater | Crater in Mexico that coincides with Cretaceous-Paleogene Extinction; part of leading theories |
| Punctuated Equilibrium | Theory that species generally remain in stasis until significant events, where they will rapidly split into new species to reach equilibrium |
| Anagenesis | Gradualism model of evolution |
| Cladogenesis | Punctuated Equilibrium model of evolution |
| Morphological Stasis | Trait in "living fossils" – Exhibition of no movement whatsoever |
| Exaptation, co-option, preadaptation | Shifts in the function of a trait during evolution |
| Allometry | Study of relationship between size and shape, anatomy, physiology, behavior, etc. |
| Morphometrics | Quantitative analysis of form, including size and shape |
| Heterochrony | Changes in rate or timing of developmental events |
| Hypermorphosis | Extra growth in a trait (i.e. sabertooth tiger) |
| Paedomorphosis (neotony) | Retention of juvenile features in the adult organism |
| Pleistocene Extinctions | End of the Pleistocene era (last glacial age); widely attributed to the spreading and effects of humanity |
| Physical Geography | Study of natural science dealing with study of natural patterns and processes |
| Biogeography | Study of distribution of species and ecosystems across space and time |
| Ecology | Study of living organisms and their relationship with their abiotic environment |
| Biotic | Factors involving other living species and factors |
| Abiotic | Factors involving physical and chemical factors |
| Organism | A contiguous living system (animal, plant, micro-organism) |
| Population | A group of organisms of the same species in the same area at the same time |
| Community | A group of interacting living organisms sharing a populated environment |
| Ecosystem | A community of living organisms in conjunction with nonliving environment components |
| Landscape | The visible features of an area of land – terrestrial, marine, living and transitory elements |
| Biosphere | Global sum of all ecosystems (zone of life on earth) |
| Global Ecology | Study of the relationship of organisms with each other on a global scale |
| Climate | Temperature, humidity, wind, precipitation, etc. – in a given region over long periods |
| Macroclimate | Regional climate of a broad area or region |
| Microclimate | Specific environment in a very small space, i.e. row of grapevines |
| Seasonality | Seasonal variation over the course of a year |
| Tropics | Region of Earth surrounding the Equator – bounded by Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. Warm due to reduced atmosphere and sun angle |
| Latitude vs. Tilt | Latitude affects overall yearly climate; Tilt affects seasonality in each year |
| Trade Winds | Between 30˚ and -30˚, move west and towards the equator – Also drive major ocean currents |
| Surface Winds | 30-60˚ are Westerly (blowing east and away from the Equator) and 60-90˚ are Easterly (blowing west and towards Equator) |
| Current Direction | Currents travel clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere; counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere – easily studied by trash and species distribution |
| Gulf Stream | Warm Atlantic current which keeps New England and Europe waters warm |
| California Current | Cold Pacific current – cold due to upwelling |
| Upwelling | Cold ocean water rising to the top due to wind and other effects – brings denser water and more nutrients |
| Antarctic Circumpolar Current | Clockwise current around Antarctica, west to east. Makes Southern Hemisphere temperature more constant and sailing W-E easier |
| Climate Diagram | Diagrams average temperature and precipitation for each month |
| Topography | Study of surfaces and their effects |
| Rain Shadow | Dry side of mountains gets a lot less rain; just like the windward side gets more rain |
| Biome | A single ecosystem, determined by climate, geography, and vegetation – Concept pioneered by Alexander Von Humboldt |
| Convergent Evolution | Acquisition of the same biological trait in unrelated lineages |
| Ecotone | Transition area between two biomes |
| Canopy | Aboveground portion of a plant community or crop, formed by plant crowns. In forests, upper layer/habitat zone |
| Temperate | Regions of the globe between tropic and polar regions – climates are usually more moderate |
| Subtropical | Areas between tropics and the 35th parallels – i.e. Southern US, Middle East, etc. |
| Savanna | Tropical grassland ecosystem |
| Chaparral | Shrubland plant community found primarily in California; Mediterranean climate |
| Northern Coniferous Forest | Colder “boreal” forest region – longer and warmer growing season than tundra, and more moist |
| Temperate Broadleaf Forest | Humid biome, often with mixed tree species. Generally on the borders of Mediterranean and moderate climates |
| Tundra | Biome where tree growth is hindered by cold and short growing seasons – various types of tundra, but most of them have short, drab vegetation if any |
| Littoral Zone | Part of a freshwater source that is close to the shore |
| Intertidal Zone | “Seashore” – is underwater at high tide and above ground at low tide. Salinity may vary with rain |
| Pelagic Zone | “Open sea” – Basically the area between the surface and the benthic zone |
| Photic vs. Aphotic | Photic zone is where light can penetrate to; Aphotic is where it can't |
| Benthic vs. Abyssal | Benthic is defined as the bottom ecological level; Abyssal is a deeper subsection of the benthic level |
| Estuaries | Partially enclosed coastal body of water – fed by a stream and open to the sea |
| Coral Reefs | Fairly obvious. Use photosynthesis, so must have their top layer in the photic zone |
| Gyre | Water system of rotating ocean currents, especially involved with wind movement |
| Hydrothermal Vents | Fissure in the planet surface which emits geothermally heated water |
| Thermocline | Thin layer in a large body of water where temperature changes rapidly |
| Continental Drift | Movement of continents relative to each other by drifting across ocean bed |
| Wallace Line | Separates two distinct ecozones – a clear example of vicariance and history of a continental shelf |
| Vicariance vs. Dispersal | Vicariance is the splitting of a habitat by physical barrier; Dispersal refers to splitting for biotic reasons |
| Abundance | Relative representation of a species in a community |
| Dispersion | Movement of individuals between birth site and various breeding sites |
| Clumped, Uniform, Random | Different biological dispersions |
| Mark-recapture Method | Self-explanatory. Assumptions: Model is accurate, movement is random, sampling is random (density-independent) |
| Geographic Range | Where a species can be found in a given area |
| Demography | Statistical study of human populations |
| Population Pyramid | Age picture diagram – indicates age distributions |
| Age Structure | Categorization of population of communities by age groups |
| Zero Population Growth (ZPG) | “Ideal” balance where a population neither grows nor declines |
| Fecundity | Birth rate |
| Metapopulation | A group of spatially separated but interacting populations of the same species |
| Life Table | Shows age vs. survivorship vs. fecundity |
| Cohort | Group of individuals all at the same age |
| Survivorship Curve | Vary among and within species. Type 1: Humans, most live up until a certain age. Type 2: Constant survivorship over time, i.e. birds Type 3: Most die young, i.e. frogs or dandelions |
| Principle of Allocation | Natural selection results in organisms optimizing resource partitioning to maximize fitness |
| Resource Partitioning | Evolution to make maximal use of a resource by sharing it |
| Homeostasis | The property of a system that maintains its condition/properties stably |
| Malthus | Argued that human growth would eventually excel the capacity of the earth to provide food |
| Allee Effect | Positive correlation between population size/density and the mean individual fitness |
| Semelparity | Quality of having 1 large reproductive event in a lifetime |
| Iteroparity | Quality of having many smaller reproductive cycles in a lifetime |
| r-selected organisms | Mature fast, high mortality, large population – often exhibit semelparity |
| K-selected organisms | Mature slowly, low mortality, smaller population – often exhibit iteroparity |
| Symbiosis | Both species benefit and are “attached” |
| Parasitism | One species benefits at another's expense |
| Mutualism | Both species benefit |
| Commensalism | One species benefits without affecting the other |
| Amensalism | One species is negatively affected and the other is neutral |
| Facilitation | Species interactions that benefit one species and harm neither (mutualism, commensalism, amensalism) |
| BIDE Model | Looks at population change as Births+Immigration-Deaths-Emigration |
| Rescue Effect | Immigration of a dying population to restart in a new area |
| Habitat Corridor | Strip of land that allows movement of species between disconnected areas of their natural habitat |
| Conservation Biology | Study of Earth's species with the aim of protecting ecosystems |
| Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) (honey bee decline) | Number of surviving honeybee populations is decreasing over time (hives disappearing) due to pesticides, stress, parasites, nutrition, etc. |
| Lotka-Volterra Equations: r1 = r1max - f(N1) - f(N2) r2 = r2max - f(N2) + f(N1) | Extension of logistic equations to predator-prey interactions r1 = r1max - f(N1) - f(N2) (prey) r2 = r2max - f(N2) + f(N1) (predator) |
| Fundamental Niche | Theoretical habitat/role of a species in an ecosystem |
| Realized Niche | Habitat/role of a species in its ecosystem in reality – Generally determined by other species |
| Gause | Came up with the principle of competitive exclusion to explain interspecific competition |
| Competitive Exclusion | The effects of two species competing for the same resource |
| Resource Partitioning | The adapation of two species to make more efficient use of a shared resource (i.e. spatial, temporal, or morphological partitioning) |
| Character Displacement | Differences in similar species are accentuated in regions where their populations overlap |
| Propagule Pressure | "Introduction Effort" – measurement of the number of individuals released into a non-native environment |
| R0 – basic reproduction number | How many people an infected person will infect |
| Transect | Species in transition (turnover) that survive in both the old habitat and the new |
| Edge Effect | Changes in population/structure that occur at the point where two habitats meet |
| Ecological Succession | Observed process of change in species structure over time. Primary involves new habitats; secondary involves disruption of a pre-existing community |
| Role of Earlier Species | Can be facilitating, inhibitory, or tolerant |
| Ecological Transition | When a disturbance to community produces a new distinctly different community |
| Climax Community | A communty that has reached a steady state |
| Non-equilibrium Community | A community that has not reached steady state |
| Energetic Hypothesis | Food chains are short because energy is not transferred efficiently |
| Dynamic Stability Hypothesis | Long food chains are less stable than short chains |
| Dominant Species | One that is present in much greater numbers relative to others |
| Keystone Species | A species that has a major impact on a food web |
| Ecosystem Engineers (Foundation Species) | A species that creates or significantly alter habitats |
| Bottom up vs. Top down | Bottom up – Removal of bottom prey will disrupt the whole food web. Top down – Removal of top predator will disrupt the whole food web |
| Trophic Cascade | Predators in a food web suppress abundance of their prey – may enhance survival of their prey's prey |
| Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) | Total solar energy captured by primary producers |
| Net Primary Productivity (NPP) | Total primary producer energy minus plant respiration energy released as heat |
| Net Ecological Productivity (NEP) | Total primary producer energy minus total (plant, consumer, and decomposer) respiration energy |
| Biomass Pyramid | Similar version to energy flow pyramid – i.e. grasslands have dramatically more primary consumers; marine primary producers rapidly turnover and have little biomass |
| Species Diversity | Two components: Species richness (number of different species) and species evenness (even distribution among species) |
| Guild (functional group) | Any group of species that use the same resources, offten in similar ways |
| Niche Complementarity | Morphological resource partitioning – Two species improve each others' survivability |
| Ecological Release | When a species is introduced to a new habitat, it will either establish a local population or die out |
| Zoonotic Pathogen | A pathogen that is transmitted to humans from other animals |
| Vector | Any agent that contains and transmits pathogens |
| Biotic Index | A scale for showing the quality/health of an environment by studying the types of organisms present |
| Dichotomous Key | Tool that helps determine the identity of items in the natural world – consist of a series of choices that lead to the correct name of the item |
| Latitudinal Diversity Gradient | Theories to explain the greater species diversity at the Equator |
| Climate Stability Hypothesis | Greater species diversity due to climate stability |
| Energy-productivity Hypothesis | More solar energy allows for greater NPP – Therefore more species |
| Structural Complexity Hypothesis | The greater structural diversity allows for more species (resource partitioning) |
| Spatial-area Hypotheses | Lots of space allows for plenty of different species |
| Alpha Diversity (α) | Diversity in a single place |
| Beta Diversity (β) | Diversity from one place to another |
| Biodiversity Hotspot | Region with a significant reservoir under threat from humans |
| Habitat Fragmentation | Breaking up of habitats – affects species that need a large area, they can't survive |
| Buffer Zone | Zone between two zones for protective or isolation reasons |
| Ecosystem Services | Ecosystem resources that benefit humankind |
| Radiation Balance | Concept of balancing total Earth energy input vs. total outpu |
| Albedo | Reflection effect form trees, atmosphere, etc – affects climate change rate |
| Greenhouse Effect | Thermal radiation from a planet surface is caught by greenhouse gases and reflected in all directions |
| Detritus | Dead organic matter |
| Eutrophication | Ecosystem response to the addition of natural or artifical nutrients/substances. Usually: Water response to the addition of nutrients (plant growth) |
| Dead Zones | Hypoxic (low-oxygen) areas in oceans and lakes; mostly caused by nutrient pollution by humans |
| El Niño | Global ocean warming phenomenon – Has many effects, i.e. on precipitation and disease rates |
| Open System | An ecosystem that constantly renews and exchanges its necessary resources |
| Closed System | An ecosystem that maintains itself on a limited amount of resources bound in that system |
| Reservoir (of elements) | A – Organic materials available as nutrients; B – Organic materials not available as nutrients (coal, oil); C – Inorganic materials available as nutrients (in water); D – Inorganic materials unavailable as nutrients (rocks) |
| Biogeochemical Cycle | Pathway by which a chemical moves through both biotic and abiotic comparrtments |
| Pool | A “Storage” of a material in its reservoir |
| Flux | Flow of materials between reservoirs |
| Leaching Process | The weathering or erosion of inorganic material in rock into water (flux) |
| Hydrologic Cycle | Biogeochemical cycle of water; driven by evaporation from oceans |
| Distribution of Nothofagus | Southern Beeches – Generally in Southern Hemisphere tropics; have been found all over indicating presence of a supercontinent |
| Vernal Pool Community | Temporary pools which become a mini-ecosystem. Consider a distinctive type of wetland, similar to a Mediterranean climate |
| Alpine Fellfield Community | Environment of a slope (alpine of tundra) which adapts to frost, wind, and falling rocks |
| Pygmy Forest Community | Forest with small trees. Due to low levels of nutrients and high concentration of iron and aluminum, a hardpan is formed in the soil, preventing deep rooting. |
| Serpentine Community | Specific type of soil involving little useful nutrients and a lot of metals (Mg and heavy metals) – leads to specific species and greenish rocks |
| Nitrogen Fixation: | N2 to NH4+ |
| Denitrification: | NO3- to N2 |
| Leaf Litter | Detritus from dead plant matter, sign of positive productivity |
| Anoxia | Total depletion of levels of oxygen – Extreme form of hypoxia |
| Bioremediation | Use of micro-organism metabolism to remove pollutants |
| Biological Augmentation | An enhancement that makes a biological system work better |
| State Shift | Humans change how an ecosystem is functioning |
| Tipping Point | The point at which a change enacted by humans becoming irreversible |
| Urban Heat Island | Temperature in cities is notably higher due to higher amount of metal, concrete, etc. |
| ABC triangle gene theory | Expression of specific genes promotes specific growth. A: Sepals. A+B: Petals. B+C: Anther. C: Carpel |
| Auxin (indole-3-acetic acid, IAA) | Natural regulator of many processes. Can cause apical dominance, abcission, and growth of many different parts depending on concentration |
| Apical Dominance | Apical meristem starts making auxin and inhibits outgrowth of lateral buds |
| Abcission | Drooping and dropping of leaves (also can be fruits) |
| Herbicide 2,4d | Synthetic auxin, used to kill weeds – Causes uncontrolled growth, which only grass can handle and survive |
| Gibberellins (GA) | Major developmental regulators. Causes plant flowering and cell elongation (grapes) and stimulates embryo growth, breaking seed dormancy |
| Cytokinins | Developmental regulators. Stimulate cell division and delay senescence, can also overcome apical dominance |
| Organ formation | Cytokinins can promote organ formation with other regulators: High auxin and low cytokinins will trigger increased root differentiation; vice versa will trigger increased shoot differentiation |
| Callus | Undifferentiated cells – found in large quantities in pith (sterile tissue) |
| Ethylene | Gas regulator substance – inspires more production of itself. Promotes epinasty, abcission, discoloration, ripening. Selectively inhibited by CO2 |
| Epinasty | Leaves grow back on themselves |
| Abscicic acid (ABA, dormin) | Signals conditions of stress or drought – produces in roots and sent upwards, closing pores in leaves and stopping water loss. Also controls stratification and involved in gravity detection. |
| June drop | How ABA was discovered – Cotton farmers found their plants kept falling off in June |
| Determination | Transition from a flower from apex (unlimited cell division) to a committed, determinate state (vegetative –> reproductive) |
| Photoperiodism | Depentent on period of darkness, not light – determined by disrupting cycle with flashes of light. Measured in leaves |
| LDP | Long day plants, need more than 11 hours of light. Florigen can be enhanced by spraying plant with gibberellins |
| SDP | Short day plants, need less than 11 hours of light. Florigen can be enhanced by cold |
| Florigen | Unidentified compound involved in flowering; same compound in SDP and LDP (determined by grafting) |
| Paleozoic Era | Oldest of the three main eras. Includes the Cambrian Explosion |
| Mesozoic Era | Medium of the three eras. "Age of Reptiles" – included dinosaurs and the drifting apart of Pangaea |
| Cenozoic Era | Newest of the three eras. "Age of Mammals" – goes up to present |
| Synapsid | Group of animals including mammals and many closely related animals |
| Hominid | Group of animals closely related to humans (chimps, apes, orangutans, etc.) |
| Water Potential | Potential of water to move from one region to another – based on concentration of water between regions |
| Transpiration | Driving force of water potential |
| Incipient Plasmolysis | The point at which turgor pressure is 0 and the membrane will recede |
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