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BSC 2011
Exam 3
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| anatomy | the study of the biological form |
| physiology | the study of the biological function |
| epithelial tissues | cover the outside of the body, line the organs and cavities, and are a barrier against mechanical injury, pathogens, and fluid loss. |
| connective tissues | hold tissues and organs together and are built on liquid, jellylike or solid foundation. |
| muscle tissues | responsible for body movement and are filaments containing actin and myosin |
| skeletal muscle | striated, voluntary, attached to bones by tendons |
| smooth muscle | internal organs, involuntary |
| cardiac muscle | striated, synchronized heart contraction |
| nervous tissues | receive, process and transmit information, contains neurons |
| conformers | exothermic, mostly invertebrates, fish, amphibians, and non-avian reptiles, they tolerate greater variation in internal temperature, and energetically inexpensive |
| regulators | endothermic, generate heat by metabolism, birds and mammals, active at a greater range of temperatures, energetically expensive. |
| homeostasis | the steady-state physiological condition of the body that is maintained by negative feedback |
| animals' diet must supply | chemical fuel for cellular respiration, organic building blocks, and essential nutrients. |
| organic building blocks | carbon-based macromolecules necessary for development and maintenance |
| essential nutrients | 20 required AA, only 10 can be synthesized from the body. fatty acids needed: omega 3 and 6 for humans. 13 vitamins. minerals. |
| herbivores | eat plants or algae |
| carnivores | eat other animals |
| omnivores | eat both plants, algae, and other animals |
| anatomy reflects diverse dietary requirements | in carnivores, the cecum and small intestine are very small. the opposite is true for herbivores. |
| 4 main stages of food processing | ingestion (mouth), digestion (stomach, small intestine), absorption (large intestine), and elimination (rectum, anus) |
| sphincter | ring-like valves at junctions between specialized compartments |
| peristalsis | alternating waves of contraction and relaxation in the smooth muscles lining the alimentary canal |
| saliva | amylase begins chemical digestion of starch |
| stomach | pepsin begins chemical digestion of protein |
| small intestine | bile (produced by liver, stored in gallbladder) begins chemical digestion of fat. pancreatic juice begins digestion of everything and neutralizes acids. |
| villi and microvilli | increase surface area and thus maximize nutrient absorption |
| large intestine | site for absorption that recovers water and nutrients. |
| ventilation | movement of the respiratory medium over the respiratory surface |
| respiration cycle | For O2, the partial pressure inside the alveolus is higher than the circulatory system so the O2 diffuses into the blood vessels and circulates. Then it diffuses into body tissues because the partial pressure is higher in the circulatory system. |
| blood content | 55% plasma, <1% white blood cells, <1% platelets, and 45% red blood cells. |
| plasma | water, ions, plasma proteins, substances transported by blood |
| white blood cells | (leucocytes); defense and immunity |
| platelets | blood clotting |
| red blood cells | (erythrocytes); transport of O2 via hemoglobin |
| arteries | carry blood away from the heart to organs |
| veins | carry blood from organs back to heart |
| cardiac cycle | one complete sequence of pumping and filling (0.8 seconds) |
| systole | contraction phase |
| diastole | relaxation phase |
| pacemaker cycle | pacemaker generates wave of signals to contract, signals are delayed at AV node, signals pass to heart apex, signals spread throughout ventricles. |
| sinoatrial node | (SA node); sets the rate and timing of cardiac muscle cell contraction |
| atrioventricular node | (AV node); relay point |
| blood flow velocity | (fastest to slowest); arteries, veins, capillaries. |
| blood pressure | (highest to lowest); arteries, capillaries, veins. |
| vein valves | powered by skeletal muscles, keeps blood moving toward heart. if they malfunction, results in varicose veins. |
| single circulatory system | fishes; blood passes through two capillary beds before returning to heart |
| double circulatory system | amphibians, reptiles, and mammals; two separate circuits of pulmonary and systematic |
| innate immunity | found in all animals and plants |
| barrier defenses | first line of defense against pathogens that consists of the exoskeleton, skin, mucous membrane, or secretion of lysosome. |
| internal defenses | recognition of non-self using a small set of conserved receptors (T receptors) |
| phagocytosis | ingestion and digestion of foreign invaders |
| antimicrobial peptides/proteins | attack microbes or impede their reproduction |
| natural killer cells | (vertebrates only); recognize and eliminate diseased cells |
| inflammatory response | (vertebrates only); changes brought about by signaling molecules released upon injury or infection |
| adaptive immunity | (vertebrates only); provides a vast arsenal of pathogen-specific receptors to recognize and respond to pathogen attacks with tremendous specificity |
| thymus | stores and matures T-cells |
| spleen | removes old red blood cells; stores red blood cells; produces red blood cells, immune cells, and antibodies. |
| lymph nodes | packed with immune cells |
| bone marrow | produce red blood cells, white blood cells, immune cells, and platelets |
| stem cells | differentiate into lymphoid stem cells (red blood cells, T and B cells) and myeloid stem cells (white blood cells) |
| humoral response | defends against extracellular pathogens in blood and lymph by binding to antigens; involves B cells and antibodies |
| antigen | any substance that elicits a response from immune cells |
| antibody | (immunoglobulin); secreted protein that binds to antigens |
| cell-mediated response | defends against intracellular pathogens and cancer by binding to and lysing the infected cells or cancer cells; involves T cells (Helper and cytotoxic) |
| Class 1 MHC molecules | found in almost all cells, recognized by cytotoxic T cells, cytotoxic T cells bind to class I MHC molecules of the infected cells and kill |
| Class 2 MHC molecules | found only in antigen-presenting cells (dendritic cells, macrophages, B cells), recognized by both types of T cells; helper T cells bind to class 2 MHC molecule and activate B and T cells |
| cytokines | produced by both antigen presenting cells and helper T cells to stimulate other immune cells |
| clonal selection | lymphocytes amplification upon binding to antigen |
| allergies | hypersensitive responses to certain antigens called allergens.the antibody (lgE) attaches to the mast cell, releasing histamines, white cause the allergic reactions |
| ammonia | highly toxic, highly soluble, easily lost by diffusion |
| urea | (mammals); very low toxicity, conversion from ammonia costs energy |
| uric acid | (birds, reptiles, insects); nontoxic, does not dissolve in water, energetically very expensive |
| excretion | the process that removes metabolic waste from the body through osmoregulation |
| kidney | has an outer renal cortex and an inner renal medulla; highest metabolic rates of any organ; 1600L of blood flows through a pair a day producing 1.5L of urine; 99% of water and nutrients are reabsorbed. |
| nephrons | functional units of the kidney |
| glomerulus | site for filtration; the capillaries and epithelial tissues are permeable to water and small solutes, but not blood cells or large molecules |
| proximal | beginning tubule; reabsorption of ions (65%), water (65%), and nutrients (100%); secretes H ions and ammonia |
| descending limb | permeable to water but not to solutes; reabsorption of water |
| ascending limb | permeable to solutes but not to water; reabsorption of salt: diffuses 25% at thin segment and active transport 5% at thick segment |
| distal | ending tubule; reabsorption of salt, water, bicarbonate; secrets K and H ions |
| collecting duct | reabsorption of salt, water, urea |
| diuretic | foods or drinks that have an adverse effect kidney functions such as caffeine and alcohol |
| water-soluble hormones | polypeptide and amine; receptor in the plasma membrane that changes in cytoplasmic function of gene transcription |
| lipid-soluble hormones | steroid and amine; receptor in the cell nucleus that changes to intracellular signal receptor, activating gene transcription. |
| pineal gland | (epithalamus)makes melatonin which is important for biorhythm |
| posterior pituitary gland | makes oxytocin (uterus contraction) and ADH (kidney function that regulates blood osmolarity) |
| anterior pituitary gland | master gland that produces many hormones (tropic hormone which regulates the function of other endocrine cells or glands) |
| thyroid gland | produces hormones to stimulate and maintain metabolic processes; too little causes weight gain, too much causes weight loss |
| parathyroid glands | produce hormones (PTH) to regulate blood calcium level |
| pancreas | produces hormones that regulate blood glucose level |
| insulin | lowers blood glucose level (beta cells) |
| glucagon | increases blood glucose level (alpha cells) |
| type 1 diabetes | insulin-dependent diabetes, autoimmune disorder (immune system destroys beta cells) |
| type 2 diabetes | non-insulin dependent diabetes, target cells fail to take up glucose from the blood, resulting in general insulin-deficiency |
| adrenal gland | produces hormones in response to stress such as epinephrine and norepinephrine |
| fight-or-flight response | increase metabolic rate, blood glucose and pressure, and changes in blood flow patterns |
| asexual reproduction | generation of new individuals without the fusion of egg and sperm |
| sexual reproduction | fusion of haploid gametes forming a diploid cell, zygote. |
| advantages of sexual reproduction | creation of genetic variation, recombination, and dna repair |
| disadvantages of sexual reproduction | only one sex can bear young, males and females must search for each other, and only half of genes are passed on |
| sperm | small and motile, hundreds of millions produced each day |
| egg | large and nonmotile, one egg produced per month (~500 in a lifetime) |
| reproductive structures | they are highly diverse. spiders have a penis near their mouth, whereas mammals have a bony penis. |
| ovaries | site for egg production |
| oviduct | fallopian tube |
| endometrium | inner lining of uterus |
| uterus | thick, muscular organ (womb) |
| vagina | muscular and elastic chamber, site for penis insertion and sperm deposits |
| vas deferens | muscular duct in testicles |
| epididymis | site for sperm maturation |
| testes | male gonads consisting of many highly coiled tubes, called seminiferous tubules |
| seminal vesicle | produce mucus, fructose, coagulating enzyme, ascorbic acids, and prostaglandins |
| prostate gland | produce anticoagulant enzymes and citrate (sperm nutrient) |
| bulbourethral gland | produce clear mucus that neutralize acidic urine in urethra |
| homologous reproductive structures | ovaries and testes; clitoris and penis |
| gametes are produced by | meiosis |
| meiosis development into gametes | in spermatogenesis, all four products of meiosis turn into gametes; in oogenesis only one of the products turns into a gamete |
| FSH | promotes activity of Sertoli cells |
| LH | regulates Leydig cells |
| Inhibin | produced by Sertoli cells, acts on anterior pituitary gland to reduce FSH secretion |
| sensory neurons | detect stimuli |
| motor neurons | communicate with effector cells |
| interneurons | analyze and interpret information and make decisions |
| dendrites | receive signals |
| axons | transmit signals |
| myelin sheath | provides electrical insulation; produced by glial cells |
| nodes of ranvier | gaps in the myelin sheath that results in fast signal conduction |
| membrane potential voltage | non-transmitting neurons have a resting potential between 60 and 80 mV |
| resting potential | the electrical potential generated by ion differential across membrane |
| hyper polarization | opening of potassium channels to diffuse potassium out of the neuron resulting in the inside of the neuron becoming negatively charged |
| depolarization | opening of sodium channels to diffuse sodium into the neuron resulting in the inside of the neuron becoming positively charged |
| refractory period | membrane can't be restimulated; prevents potentials from traveling backwards |
| evolution of nervous system involving neurons | 500 MYA |
| grey matter | neuron cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated axons |
| white matter | bundled axons with myelin sheaths |
| ventricles | filled with cerebrospinal fluid (supplies nutrients and hormones, carries away wastes) |
| spinal cord | conveys information to and from the brain, generates basic patterns of locomotion,and produces reflexes |
| sympathetic nervous system | arousal, energy generation, fight-or-flight |
| parasympathetic nervous system | calming, self-maintenance, rest-and-relax |
| cerebellum | coordinates movement, balance, helps learning, remembers motor skills |
| cerebrum | controls muscle contraction, learning emotions, memory, perception, site of information processing; left and right hemispheres connected by corpus callosum |
| brainstem | site for homeostasis; midbrain receives and integrates sensory information |
| pons and medulla oblongata | transfer information between PNS and midbrain, control automatic homeostatic functions |
| diencephalon | a relay station for information flow in the body |
| thalamus | main input center for sensory information going to cerebrum |
| hypothalamus | important region for homeostasis, sexual behavior, fight-or-flight response, and pleasure |
| sensory reception | detection of a stimulus by sensory cells |
| transduction | conversion of a stimulus to a change in membrane potential |
| transmission | transmission of sensory information through nervous system via action potentials |
| perception | action potential reaching brain via sensory neurons |
| amplification | strengthening of a sensory signal during transduction via enzyme catalyzed reactions |
| sensory adaption | decrease in responsiveness upon continued stimulation |
| mechanoreceptors | pressure, tough, stretch, motion, sound |
| electromagnetic receptors | visible light, electricity, magnetism |
| thermoreceptors | heat, cold |
| nociceptors | pain |
| chemoreceptors | smell, taste |
| outer ear | collect and channel sound waves |
| middle ear | transmit vibrations |
| inner ear | transduction in cochlea (relies on hair cells and basilar membrane) |
| semicircular canals | detect angular movement |
| utricle and saccule | determine which way is up and linear acceleration |
| taste buds | taste receptor cells (epithelial) in tongue and mouth that can distinguish the five tastants |
| five tastants | sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami (savory) |
| focusing | is achieved by the shape of lens controlled by ciliary muscles. the thicker the lens, the more sharply light is bent |
| rods | sensitive to light, do not distinguish color |
| cones | color vision (red, green, blue), contribute little to night vision |
| hierarchical organization of skeletal muscle | muscle fiber, myofibril, thin filament (Actin), thick filament (myosin) |
| sarcomere | basic contractile unit of muscle |
| human skeleton | consists of 206 bones |
Created by:
JacobGant
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