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Physio with slides
Psychophysiology with slide images
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Neuraxis | an imaginary line drawn through the center of the length of the cns, from the bottom of the spinal cord to the front of the forebrain |
| anterior | with respect to the cns, located near or toward the head |
| Posterior | with respect to the cns, located near or toward the tail |
| rostral | "toward the beak"; with respect to the cns, in a direction along the neuraxis toward the front of the face |
| caudal | "toward the tail"; with respect to the cns, in a direction along the neuraxis away from the front of the face |
| dorsal | "toward the back"; with respect to the cns, in a direction perpendicular to the neuraxis towards the top of the head or the back |
| ventral | "toward the belly"; with respect to the cns, in a direction perpendicular to the neurais toward the bottom of the skull or the front surface of the body |
| lateral | toward the side of the body, away from the middle |
| medial | toward the middle of the body, away from the side |
| ipsilateral | located on the same side of the body |
| contralateral | located on the opposite side of the body |
| cross section | with respect to the cns, a slice taken at right angles to the neuraxis |
| frontal section | a slice through the brain parallel to the ground |
| sagittal section | a slice through the brain parallel to the neuraxis and perpendicular to the ground |
| midsagittal plane | the plane through the neuraxis perpendicular to the ground; divides the brain into two symmetrical halves |
| meninges | the three layers of tissue that encase the cns: the dura mater, arachnoid membrane, and pia mater |
| dura mater | the outermost of the meninges; tough and flexible |
| arachnoid membrane | the middle layer of the meninges, located between the outer dura mater and inner pia mater |
| pia mater | the layer of the meninges that clings to the surface of the brain; thin and delicate |
| subarachnoid space | the flued-filled space that cushions the brain; located between the arachnoid membrane and the pia mater |
| cerebrospinal fluid | a clear flud, similar to blood plasma, that fills the ventricular system of the brain and the subarachoid space surrounding the brain and spinal cord |
| ventricle | one of the hollow spaces within the brain, filled with cerebrospinal fluid |
| lateral ventricle | one of the two ventricles located in the center of the telecephalon |
| third ventricle | the ventricle located in the center of the diencephalon |
| cerebral aquaduct | a narrow tube interconnecting the third and fourth ventricles of the brain, located in the center of the mesencephalon |
| fourth ventricle | the ventricle located between the cerbellum and the dorsal pons, in the center of the metencephalon |
| choroid plexus | the highly vascular tissue that protrudes into the ventricle and produces cerebrospinal fluid |
| arachnoid granulation | small projections of the arachnoid membrane throught the dura mater into the superior sagittal sinus; CSF flows through them to be reabsorbed into the blood supply |
| superior sagittal sinus | a venous sinus located in the midline just dorsal to the corpus callosum, between the two cerebral hemispheres |
| obstructive hydrocephalus | a condition in which all or some of the brain's ventricles are enlarged; caused by an obstruction that impedes the normal flow of CSF |
| neural tube | a hollow tube, closed at the rostral end, that forms from ectodermal tissue early in embryonic development; serves as the origin of the cns |
| cerbral cortex | the outermost layer of gray matter of the cerebral hemispheres |
| progenitor cells | cells of the ventricular zone that divide and give rise to cells of the cns |
| ventricular zone | a layer of cess that line the inide of the neural tube; contains progenitor cells that divide and give rise to cells of the cns |
| subventricular zone | a layer of progenitor cells located just inside the ventricular zone; thicker in mammals with large brains |
| symmetrical division | division of a progenitor cell that gives rise to two identical progenitor cells; increases the size of the ventricular zone and hence the brain that develops from it |
| asymmetrical division | division of a progenitor cell that gives rise to another progenitor cell and a neuron, which migrates away from the ventricular zone toward its final resting place in the brain |
| radial glia | special glia with fibers that grow radially outward from the ventricular zone to the surface of the cortex; provide guidance for neurons migrating outward during brain development |
| apoptosis | death of a cell caused by a chemical signal that activates a genetic mechanism inside the cell |
| neurogenesis | production of new neurons through the division of neural stem cells; occurs in the hippocampus and olfactory bulb and appears to play a role in learning |
| forebrain | the most rostral of the three major divisions of the brain; includes the tlencephalon and diencephalon |
| cerebral hemisphere | one of the two major portions of the forebrain, covered by the cerebral cortex |
| subcortical region | the region located within the brain, beneath the cortical surface |
| sulcus | a groove in the surface of the cerebral hemisphere, smaller than a fissure |
| fissure | a major groove in the surface of the brain, larger than a sulcus |
| gyrus | a convolution of the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, separated by sulci or fissures |
| primary visual cortex | the region of the posterior occipital lobe whose primary input is from the visual system |
| calcarine fissure | a fissure located in the occipital lobe on the medial surface of the brain; most of the primary visual cortex is located along its upper and lower banks |
| primary auditory cortex | the region of the superior temporal lobe whose primary input is from the auditory system |
| lateral fissure | the fissure that separates the temporal lobe from the overlying frontal and parietal lobes |
| primary somatosensory cortex | the region of the anterior parietal lobe whose primary input is from the somatosensory system |
| central sulcus | the sulcus that separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe |
| insular cortex | a sunken region of the cerebral cortex that is normally covered by the rostral superior temporal lobe and caudal inferior frontal lobe |
| primary motor cortex | the region of the posterior frontal lobe that contains neurons that control movements of skeletal muscles |
| frontal lobe | the anterior portion of the cerbral cortex, rostral to the parietal lobe and dorsal to the temporal lobe |
| parietal lobe | the region of the cerebral cortex caudal to the frontal lobe and dorsal to the temporal lobe |
| temporal lobe | the region of the cerebral cortex rostral to the occipital lobe and ventral to the parietal and frontal lobes |
| occipital lobe | the region of the cerebral cortex caudal to the parietal and temporal lobes |
| sensory association cortex | those regions of the cerebral cortex that receive information from the regions of primary sensory cortex |
| motor association cortex | the region of the frontal lobe rostral to the primary motor cortex; also known as the premotor cortex |
| prefrontal cortex | the region of the frontal lobe rostral to the motor association cortex |
| corpus callosum | a large bundle of axons that interconnects corresponding regions of the association cortes on each side of the brain |
| neocortex | the phylogenetically newest cortex, including the primary sensory cortex, primary motor cortex, and association cortex |
| limbic cortex | phylogenetically old cortex, located at the medial edge ("limbus") of the cerebral hemispheres; part of the limbic system |
| cingulate gyrus | a strip of limbic cortex lying along the lateral walls of the groove separating the cerebral hemispheres, just above the corpus callosum |
| limbic system | a group of brain regions including the anterior thalamic nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus, limbic cortex, and parts of the hypothalamus, a well as their interconnecting fiber bundles |
| amygdala | a structure in the interior of the rostral temporal lobe, containing a set of nuclei; part of the limbic system |
| fornix | a fiber bundle that connects the hippocampus with other parts of the brain, including the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus; part of the limbic system |
| mammillary bodies | a protrusion of the bottom of the brain at the posterior end of the hypothalamus, containing some hypothalamic nuclei; part of the limbic system |
| basal ganglia | a group of subcortical nuclei in the telencephalon, the caudate nucleus, the globus pallidus, and the putamen; important parts of the motor system |
| nucleus | an identifiable group of neural cell bodies in the CNS |
| diencephalon | a region of the forebrain surrounding the third ventricle; includes the thalamus and the hypothalamus |
| thalamus | the largest portion of the diencephalon, located above the hypothalamus; contains nuclei that project information to specific regions of the cerebral cortex and receive information from it |
| projection fiber | an axon of a neuron in one region of the brain whose terminals form synapses with neurons in another region |
| lateral geniculate nucleus | a group of cell bodies within the lateral geniculate body of the thalamus that receives fibers from the retina and projects fibers to the primary visual cortex |
| medial geniculate nucleus | a group of cell bodies within the medial geniculate body of the thalamus; receives fibers from the auditory system and projects fibers to the primary auditory cortex |
| ventrolateral nucleus | a nucleus of the thalamus that receives inputs from the cerebellum and sends axons to the primary motor cortex |
| hypothalamus | the group of nuclei of the deincephalon situated beneath the thalamus; involved in regulation of the autonomic NS, control of the anterior and posterior pituitary glands, and integration of species-typical behaviors |
| optic chasm | an X-shaped connection between the optic nerves, located below the based of the brain, just anterior to the pituitary gland |
| anterior pituitary gland | the anterior part of the pituitary gland; an endocrine gland whose secretions are controlled by the hypothalamic hormones |
| neurosecretory cell | a neuron that secretes a hormone or hormonelike substance |
| posterior pituitary gland | the posterior part of the pituitary gland; an endocrine gland that contains hormone-secreting terminal buttons of axons whose cell bodies lie within the hypothalamus |
| midbrain | the mesencephalon; the central of the three major divisions of the brain |
| mesencephalon | the midbrain; a region of the brain that surrounds the cerebral aqueduct; include the tectum and the tegmentum |
| tectum | the dorsal part of the midbrain; includes the superior and inferior colluculi |
| superior colliculi | protrusions on top of the midbrain; part of the visual system |
| inferior colliculi | protrusions on top of the midbrain; part of the auditory system |
| brain stem | the "stem" of the brain, from the medulla to the midbrain, excluding the cerebellum |
| tegmentum | the ventral part of the midbrain; includes the periaqueductal gray matter, reticular formation, red nucleus, and substantia nigra |
| reticular formation | a large network of neural tissue located in the central region of the brain stem, from the medulla to the diencephalon |
| periaqueductal gray matter | the region of the midbrain surrounding the cerebral aqueduct; contains neural circuits involved in species-typical behaviors |
| red nucleus | a large nucleus of the midbrain that receives inputs from the cerebellum and motor cortex and sends axons to motor neurons in the spinal cord |
| substantia nigra | a darkly stained region of the tegmentum that contains neurons that communicate with the caudate nucleus and putamen in the basal ganglia |
| hindbrain | the most caudal of the three major division of the brain; includes the metencephalon and myencephalon |
| cerebellum | a major part of the brain located dorsal to the pons, containing the two cerebellar hemspheres, covered with the cerebellar cortex; an important component of the motor system |
| cerebellar cortex | the cortex that covers the surface of the cerebellum |
| deep cerebellar nuclei | nuclei located within the cerebellar hemispheres; receive projections from the cerebellar cortex and send projections out of the cerebellum to other parts of the brain |
| cerebellar peduncle | one of three bundles of axons that attach each cerebellar hemisphere to the dorsal pons |
| pons | the region of the metencephalon rostral to the medulla, caudal to the midbrain, and ventral to the cerebellum |
| medulla oblongata | the most caudal portion of the brain; located in the myelencephalon, immediately rostral to the spinal cord |
| spinal cord | the cord of nervous tissue that extends caudally from the medulla |
| spinal root | a bundle of axons surrounded by connective tissue that occurs in pairs, which fuse and form a spinal nerve |
| cauda equina | a bundle of spinal roots located caudal to the end of the spinal cord |
| caudal block | the anesthesia and paralysis of the lower part of the body produced by injection of a local anesthetic into the cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the cauda equina |
| dorsal root | the spinal root that contains incoming (afferent) sensory fibers |
| ventral root | the spinal root that contains outgoing (efferent) motor fibers |
| spinal nerve | a peripheral nerve attached to the spinal cord |
| afferent axon | an axon directed toward the cns, conveying sensory information |
| dorsal root ganglion | a nodule on a dorsal root that contains cell bodies of afferent spinal nerve neurons |
| efferent axon | an axon directed away from the cns, conveying motor commands to muscles and glands |
| cranial nerve | a peripheral nerve attached directly to the brain |
| vagus nerve | the largest of the cranial nerves, conveying efferent fibers of the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system to organs of the thoracic and abdominal cavities |
| olfactory bulb | the protrusion at the end of the olfactory nerve; receives input from the olfactory receptors |
| somatic nervous system | the part of the peripheral NS that controls the movement of skeletal muscles or transmits somatosensory information to the CNS |
| autonomic nervous system | the portion of the PNS that controls the body's vegetative functions |
| sympathetic division | the portion of the autonomic NS that controls functions that accompany arousal and expenditure of energy |
| sympathetic ganglia | nodules that contain synapses between preganglionic and postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic NS |
| sympathetic ganglion chain | one of a pair of groups of sympathetic ganglia that lie ventrolateral to the vertebral column |
| preganglionic neuron | the efferent neuron of the autonomic NS whose cell body is located in a cranial nerve nucleus or in the intermediate horn of the spinal gray matter and whose terminal buttons synapse upon postganglionic neurons in the autonomic ganglia |
| postganglionic neuron | neurons of the autonomic nervous system that form synapses directly with their target organ |
| adrenal medulla | the inner portion of the adrenal gland, located atop the kidney, controlled by sympathetic verve fibers, secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine |
| parasympathetic division | the portion of the autonomic nervous system that controls functions that occur during a relaxed state |
| sensory neuron | a neuron that detects changes in the external or internal environment and sends information about these changes to the CNS |
| motor neuron | a neuron located within the CNS that controls the contraction of a muscle or the secretion of a gland |
| interneuron | a neuron located entirely within the CNS |
| central nervous system (CNS) | the brain and spinal cord |
| peripheral nervous system (PNS) | the part of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord, including the nerves attached to the brain and spinal cord |
| soma | the cell body of a neuron that contains the nucleus |
| dendrite | a branched, treelike structure attached to the soma of a neuron; receives informtion from the terminal buttons of other neurons |
| synapse | a junction between the terminal button of an axon and the membrane of another neuron |
| axon | the long, thin, cylindrical structure that conveys infomration from the soma of a neuron to its terminal buttons |
| multipolar neuron | a neruon with one axon and many dendrites attached to its soma |
| bipolar neuron | a neuron with one axon and one dendrite attached to its soma |
| unipolar neuron | a neuron with one axon attached to its soma; the axon divides, with one branch receiving sensory information and the other sending the information into the CNS |
| terminal button | the bud at the end of a branch of an axon; forms synapses with another neuron; sends information to that neuron |
| neurotransmitter | a chemical that is released by a terminal button; has an excitatory or inhibitory effect on another neuron |
| membrane | a structure consisting principally of lipid molecues that defines the outer boundaries of a cell and also constitutes many of the cell organelles, such as the Golgi apparatus |
| nucleus | a structure in the central region of a cell, containing the nucleolus and chromosomes |
| nucleolus | a structure within the nucleus of a cell that produces the ribosomes |
| ribosome | a cytoplasmic structure, made of protein, that serves as the site of production of proteins translated from mRNA |
| chromosome | a strand of DNA, with associated proteins, found in the nucleus; carries genetic information |
| deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) | a long, complex macromolecule consisting of two intercommected helical strands; along with associated proteins, strands of DNA constitute the chromosomes |
| gene | the functional unit of the chromosome, which directs synthesis of one or more proteins |
| messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) | a macromolecule that delivers genetic information concerning the synthesis of a protein from a portion of a chromosome to a ribosome |
| enzyme | a molecule that controls a chemical reaction, combining two substances or breaking a substance into two parts |
| non-coding RNA (ncRNA) | a form of RNA that does not encode for protein but has functions of its own |
| cytoplasm | the viscous, semiliquid substance contained in the interior of a cell |
| mitochondrion | an organelle that is responsible for extracting energy from nutrients |
| adenosine triphosphate (ATP) | a molecule of prime importance to cellular energy metabolism; its breakdown liberates energy |
| endoplasmic reticulum | parallel layers of membrane found within the cytoplasm of a cell. |
| Smooth endoplasmic reticulum | the site of synthesis of lipids and provides channels for the segregation of molecules involved in various cellular processes. |
| Rough endoplasmic reticulum | contains ribosomes and is involved with production of proteins that are secreted by the cell. |
| Golgi apparatus | a complex of parallel membranes in the cytoplasm that wraps the products of a secretory cell |
| exocytosis | the secretion of a substance by a cell through means of vesicles; the process by with neurotransmitters are secreted |
| lysosome | an organell surrounded by membrane; contains enzymes that break down waste products |
| cytoskeleton | formed of microtubules and other protein fibers, linked to each other and forming a cohesive mass that gives a cell its shape |
| microtubules | a long strand of bundles of protein filaments arranged around a hollow core; part of the cytoskeleton and involved in transporting substances from place to place within the cell |
| axoplasmic transport | an active process by which substances are propelled along microbubules that run the length of the axon |
| anterograde | in a direction along an axon from the cell body toward the terminal buttons |
| retrograde | in a direction along an axon from the terminal buttons toward the cell body |
| glia | the supporting cells of the CNS |
| astrocyte | a glial cell that prvides support for neurons of the CNS, provides nutrients and other substances, and regulates the chemical composition of the extracellular fluid |
| phagocytosis | the process by which cells engulf and digest other cells or debris caused by cellular degeneration |
| oligodendrocyte | a type of glial cell in the CNS that forms myelin sheaths |
| myeline sheath | a sheath that surrounds axons and insulates them, preventing messages from spreading between adjacent axons |
| node of Ranvier | a naked portion of a myelinated axon between adjacent oligodendroglia or Schwann cells |
| microglia | the smallest of glial celss; act as phagocytes and protect the brain from invading microorganisms |
| Schwann cell | a cell in the PNS that is wrapped around a myelinated axon, providing one segment of its myelin sheath |
| blood-brain barrier (BBB) | a semipermeable barrier between the blood and the brain produced by the cells in the walls of the brain's capillaries |
| area postrema | a region of the medulla where the BBB is weak; poisons can be detected there and can initiate vomiting |
| membrane potential | the electrical charge across a cell membrane; the difference in electrical potential inside and outside the cell |
| resting potential | the membrane potential of a neuron when it is not being altered by excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic potnetials; approximately -70mV in the giant squid axon |
| depolarization | reduction (toward zero) of the membrane potential of a cell from its normal resting potential |
| hyperpolarization | an increase in the membrane potential of a cell, relative to the normal resting potential |
| action potential | the brief electrical impulse that provides the basis for conduction of information along an axon |
| threshold of excitation | the value of the membrane potential that must be reached to produce an action potential |
| diffusion | movement of molecules from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration |
| electrolyte | an aqueous solution of a material that ionizes--namely, a soluble acid, base, or salt |
| ion | a charged molecule. Cations are positively charged, and anions are negatively charged |
| electrostatic pressure | the attractive force between atomic particles charged with opposite signs or the repulsive force between atomic particles charged with the same sign. |
| intracellular fluid | the fluid contained within cells |
| extracellular fluid | body fluids located outside of cells |
| sodium-potassium transporter | a protein found in the membrane of all cells that extrudes sodium ions from and transports potassium ions into the cell |
| ion channel | a specialized protein molecule that permits specific ions to enter or leave cells |
| voltage-dependent ion channel | an ion channel that opens or closes according to the value of the membrane potential |
| all-or-none law | the principle that once an action potential is triggered in an axon, it is propagated, without decrement, to the end of the fiber |
| rate law | the principle that variations in the intensity of a stimulus or other information being transmitted in an axon are represented by variations in the rate at which that axon fires |
| saltatory conduction | conduction of action potentials by myelinated axons. The action potential appears to jump from one node of Ranvier to the next |
| postsynaptic potential | alterations in the membrane potential of a postsynaptic neuron, produced by liberation of neurotransmitter at the synapse |
| binding site | the location on a receptor protein to which a ligand binds |
| ligand | a chemical that binds with the binding site of a receptor |
| dendritic spine | a small bud on the surface of a dendrite, with which a terminal button of another neuron forms a synapse |
| presynaptic membrane | the membrane of a terminal button that lies adjacent to the postsynaptic membrane and through which the neurotransmitter is released |
| postsynaptic membrane | the cell membrane opposite the terminal button in a synapse; the membrane of the cell that receives the message |
| synaptic cleft | the space between the presynaptic membrane and the postsynaptic membrane |
| synaptic vesicle | a small, hollow, beadlike structure found in terminal buttons; contains molecules of a neurotransmitter |
| release zone | a region of the interior of the presynaptic membrane of a synapse to which synaptic vesicles attach and release their neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft |
| postsynaptic receptor | a receptor molecule in the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter |
| neurotransmitter-dependent ion channel | an ion channl that opens when a molecule of a neurotransmitter binds with a postsynaptic receptor |
| ionotropic receptor | a receptor that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter and an ion channel that opens when a molecule of the neurotransmitter attaches to the binding site |
| metabotropic receptor | a receptor that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter; activates an enzyme that begins a series of events that opens an ion channel elsewhere in the membrane of the cell when a molecule of the neurotransmitter attaches to the binding site |
| G protein | a protein coupled to a metabotropic receptor; conveys messages to other molecules when a ligand binds with and activates the receptor |
| second messenger | a chemical produced when a G protein activates an enzyme; carries a signal that results in the opening of the ion channel or causes other events to occur in the cell |
| excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) | an excitatory depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse caused by the liberation of a neurotransmitter by the terminal button |
| inhibitory postsynaptic potential (ISPS) | an inhibitory hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse caused by the liberation of a neurotransmitter by the terminal button |
| reuptake | the reentry of a neurotransmitter just liberated by a terminal button back through its membrane, thus terminating the postsynaptic potential |
| enzymatic deactivation | the destruction of a neurotransmitter by an enzyme after its release--for example the destruction of acetylcholine by acetylcholinesterase |
| acetylcholine (ACh) | a neurotransmitter found in the brain, spinal cord, and parts of the PNS; responsible for muscle contraction |
| acetylcholinesterase (AChE) | the enzyme that destroys acetylcholine soon after it is liberated by the terminal buttons, thus terminating the postsynaptic potential |
| neural integration | the process by which inhibitory and exitatory postsynaptic potentials summate and control the rate of firing of a neuron |
| autoreceptor | a receptor molecule located on a neuron that responds to the neurotransmitter released by that neuron |
| presynaptic inhibition | the action of a presynaptic terminal button in an axoaxonic synapse; reduces the amount of neurotransmitter released by the postsynaptic terminal button |
| presynaptic facilitation | the action of a presynaptic terminal button in an axoaxonic synapse; increases the amount of neurotransmitter released by the postsynaptic terminal button |
| gap junction | a special juntion between cells that permits direct communication by means of electrical coupling |
| neuromodulator | a naturally secreted substance that acts like a neurotransmitter except that it is not restricted to the synaptic cleft but diffuses through the extracellular fluid |
| peptide | a chain of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds. Most neuromodulators, and some hormones, consist of peptide molecules |
| hormone | a chemical substance that is released by an endocrine gland that has effects on target cells in other organs |
| endocrine gland | a gland that liberates its secretions into the extracellular fluid around capillaries and hence into the bloodstream |
| target cell | the type of cell that is directly affected by a hormone or other chemical signal |
| steroid | a chemical of low molecular weight, derived from cholesterol. Steroid hormones affect their target cells by attaching to receptors found within the nucleus |
| drug effect | the changes a drug produces in an animal's physiological processes and behavior |
| sites of action | the locations at which molecules of drugs interact with molecules located on or in cells of the body, thus affecting some biochemical processes of these cells |
| pharmacokinetics | the process by which drugs are absorbed, distributed within the body, metabolized, and excreted |
| intravenous (IV) injection | injection of a substance directly into a vein |
| intraperitoneal (IP) injection | injection of a substance into the peritoneal cavity--the space that surrounds the stomach, intestines, liver, and other abdominal organs |
| intramuscular (IM) injection | injection of a substance into a muscle |
| subcutaneous (SC) injection | injection of a substance into the space beneath the skin |
| oral administration | administration of a substance into the mouth so that it is swallowed |
| sublingual administration | administration of a substance by placing it under the tongue |
| intrarectal administration | administration of a substance into the rectum |
| inhalation | administration of a vaporous substance into the lungs |
| topical administration | administration of a substance directly onto the skin or mucous membrane |
| intracerebral administration | administration of a substance directly into the brain |
| intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration | administration of a substance into one of the cerebral ventricles |
| dose-response curve | a graph of the magnitude of an effect of a drug as a function of the amount of drug administered |
| therapuetic index | the ratio between the dose that produces the desired effect in 50% of the animals and the dose that produces a toxic effect in 50% of the animals |
| affinity | the readiness with which two molecules join together |
| sensitization | an increase in the effectiveness of a drug that is administered repeatedly |
| withdrawal symptom | the appearance of symptoms opposite to those produced by a drug when the drug is administered repeatedly and then suddenly no longer taken |
| placebo | an inert substance that is given to an organism in lieu of a physiologically active drug; used experimentally to control for the effects of mere administration of a drug |
| antagonist | a drug that opposes or inhibits the effects of a particular neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic cell |
| agonist | a drug that facilitates the effects of a particular neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic cell |
| direct agonist | a drug that binds with and activates a receptor |
| receptor blocker | a drug that binds with a receptor but does not activat it; prevents the natural ligand from binding with the receptor |
| direct antagonist | a synonym for recptor blocker |
| noncompetitive binding | binding of a drug to a site on a receptor; does not interfere with the binding site for the principal ligand |
| indirect antagonist | a drug that attaches to a binding site on a receptor and interferes with the action of the receptor; does not interfere with the binding site for the principal ligand |
| indirect agonist | a drug that attaches to a binding site on a receptor and facilitates the action of the receptor; does not interfere with the binding site for the principal ligand |
| presynaptic heteroceptor | a receptor located in the membrane of a terminal button that receives input from another terminal button by means of an axoaxonic synapse; binds with the neurotransmitter released by the presynaptic terminal button |
| acetyl-CoA | a cofactor that supplies acetate for the synthesis of acetylcholine |
| choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) | the enzyme that transfers the acetate ion from acetyl coenzyme A to choline, producing the neurotransmitter acetylcholine |
| botulinum toxin | an acetylcholine antagonist; prevents release by terminal buttons |
| black wido spider venom | a poison produced by the black widow spider that triggers the release of acetylcholine |
| neostigmine | a drug that inhibits the activity of acetylcholinesterase |
| nicotinic receptor | an ionotropic acetylcholine recetpro that is stimulated by nicotine and blocked by curare |
| muscarinic receptor | a metabotropic acetylchiline receptor that is stimulated by muscarine and blocked by atropine |
| atropine | a drug that blocks muscarine acetylcholine receptors |
| crare | a drug that blocks nicotinic acetylcholine receptors |
| monomaine | a class of amines that includes indolamines, such as serotonin; and catecholamines, such as dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine |
| catecholamine | a class of amines that includes the neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine |
| dopamine (DA) | a neurotransmitter; one of the catecholamines |
| l-DOPA | the levoratatory form of DOPA; the precursor of the catecholamines; often used to treat Parkinson's disease because of its effect as a dopamine agonist |
| nigrostriatal system | a system of neurons originating in the substantia nigra and terminating in the neostriatum (caudate nucleus and putamen) |
| mesolimbic system | a system of dopaminergic neurons originating in the ventral tegmental area and terminating in the nucleus accumbens, amygdala, and hippocampus |
| mesocortical system | a system of dopaminergic neurons originating in the ventral tegmental area and terminating in the prefronal cortex |
| Parkinson's disease | a neurological disease characterized by tremors, rigidity of the limbs, poor balance, and difficulty in initiating movements; caused by degeneration of the nigrostriatal system |
| AMPT | a drug that blocks the activity of tyrosine hydroxylase and thus interferes with the synthesis of the catecholamines |
| reserpine | a drug that interferes with the storage of monoamines in synaptic vesicles |
| apomorphine | a drug that blocks dopamine autoreceptors at low doses; at higher doeses, blocks postsynaptic receptors as well |
| methylphenidate | a drug that inhibits the reuptake of dopamine |
| monoamine oxidase (MAO) | a class of enzymes that destroy the monoamines: dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin |
| deprenyl | a drug that blocks the activity of MAO-B; acts as a dopamine agonist |
| chlorpromazine | a drug that reduces the symptoms of schizophrenia by blocking dopamine D2 receptors |
| norepinephrine | one of the catacholamines; a neurotransmitter found in the brain and in the sympathetic division of the autonomic NS |
| epinephrine | one of the catecholamines; a hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla; serves also as a neurotransmitter in the brain |
| fusaric acid | a drug that inhibits the activity of the enzyme dopamine-B-hydroxylase and thus blocks the production of norepinephrine |
| moclobemide | a drug that blocks the activity of MAO-A; acts as a noradrenergic agonist |
| locus coeruleus | a dark-colored group of noradrenergic cell bodies located in the pons near the rostral end of the floor of the fourth ventricle |
| axonal varcosity | an enlarged region along the length of an axon that contains synaptic vesicles and releases a neurotransmitter or neuromoculator |
| idazoxan | a drug that blocks presynaptic noradrenergic (alpha 2) receptors and hence acts as an agonist, facilitating the synthesis and release of NE |
| serotonin (5-HT) | an indolamine neurotransmitter; also called 5-hydroxytryptamine |
| PCPA | a drug that inhibits the activity of tryptophan hydroxylase and thus interferes with the synthesis of 5-HT |
| fluoxetine | a drug that inhibits the reuptake of 5-HT |
| fenfluramine | a drug that stimulates the release of 5-HT |
| LSD | a drug that stimulates 5-HT2Z receptors |
| MDMA | a drug that serves as a noradrenergice and seotonergic agonist, also knows as "ecstasy"; has excitatory and hallucinogenic effects |
| histamine | a neurotransmitter that plays an important role in stimulating wakefulness |
| glutamate | an amino acid; the most important excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain |
| NMDA receptor | a specialized ionotropic glutamate receptor that controls a calcium channel that is normally blocked by Mg2+ ions; has several ohter binding sites |
| AMPA receptor | an ionotropic glutamate receptor that controls a sodium channel; stimulated by AMPA |
| kainate receptor | an ionotropic glutamate receptor that controls a sodium channel; stimulated by kainic acid |
| metabotropic glutamate receptor | a category of metabotropic receptors that are sensitive to glutamate |
| AP5 (2-amino-5phosphonopentanoate) | a drug that blocks the glutamate binding site on NMDA receptors |
| PCP | phencyclidine; a drug that binds with the PCP binding site of the NMDA receptor and serves as an indirect antagonist |
| GABA | an amino acid; the most important inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain |
| allylglycine | a drug that inhibits the activity of GAD and thus blocks the synthesis of GABA |
| GAD | glutamic acid decarboxylase, an enzyme that produces GABA by removing a carboxyl group from glutamic acid |
| muscimol | a direct agonist for the GABA binding site on the GABA-A receptor |
| bicuculline | a direct antagonist for the GABA binding site on the GABA-A receptor |
| benzodiazepine | a category of anxiolytic drugs; an indirect agonist for the GABA-A receptor |
| anxiolytic | an anxiety-reducing effect |
| glycine | an amino acid; an important inhibitory neurotransmitter in the lower brain stem and spinal cord |
| strychnine | a direct antagonist for the blycine receptor |
| anandamide | the first cannabinoid to be discovered and probably the most important one |
| endogenous opioid | a class of peptides secreted by the brain that act as opiates |
| enkephalin | one of the endogenous opioids |
| naloxone | a drug that blocks opiate receptors |
| endocannabinoid | a lipid; an endogenous ligand for cannabinoid receptors, which also bind with THC, the active ingredient in Marijuana |
| THC | the active ingredient in marijuana; activates CB-1 receptors in the brain |
| anandamide | the first cannabinoid to be discovered and probably the most important one |
| FAAH | fatty acid amide hydrolase, the enzyme that destroys anandamide after it is brought back into the cell by anandamide transporters |
| rimonabant | a drug that blocks CB-1 receptors |
| MAFP | a drug that inhibits FAAH; prevents the breakdown of anandamide |
| AM1172 | a drug that inhibits the reuptake of anandamide |
| adenosine | a nucleoside; a combination of ribose and adenine; serves as a neuromodulator in the brain |
| caffeine | a drug that blocks adenosine receptors |
| nitric oxide (NO) | a gas produced by cells in the nervous system; used as a means of communication between cells |
| nitric oxide sythase | the enzyme responsible for the production of nitric oxide |
| electromyogram (EMG) | an electrical potential recorded from an electrode placed on or in a muscle. |
| electro-oculogram (EOG) | an electrical potential from the eyes, recorded by means of electrodes placed on the skin around them; detects eye movements. |
| alpha activity | smooth electrical activity of 8 - 12 Hz recorded from the brain; generally associated with a state of relaxation |
| beta activity | irregular electrical activity of 13 - 30 Hz recorded from the brain; generally associated with a sate of arousal |
| theta activity | EEG activity of 3.5 - 7.5 Hz that occurs intermittently during early stages of slow-wave sleep and REM sleep. |
| delta activity | regular, synchronous electrical activity of less than 4 Hz recorded from the brain; occurs during the deepest stages of slow-wave sleep |
| slow-wave sleep | Non-REM sleep, characterized by synchronized EEG activity during its deeper stages. |
| down state | a period of inhibition during a slow oscillation during slow-wave sleep; neurons in the neocortex are silent and resting. |
| up state | a period of excitation during a slow oscillation during slow-wave sleep; neurons in the neocortex briefly fire at a high rate |
| REM sleep | a period of desynchronized EEG activity during sleep, at which time dreaming, rapid eye movements, and muscular paralysis occur; also called paradoxical sleep |
| non-REM sleep | all stages of sleep except REM sleep |
| sleep apnea | cessation of breathing while sleeping |
| narcolepsy | a sleep disorder characterized by periods of irresistible sleep, attacks of cataplexy, sleep paralysis, and hypnagogic hallucinations |
| sleep attack | a symptom of narcolepsy; an irresistible urge to sleep during the day, after which the person awakens feeling refreshed |
| cataplexy | a symptom of narcolepsy; complete paralysis that occurs during waking |
| sleep paralysis | a symptom of narcolepsy; paralysis occurring just before a person falls asleep |
| hypnagogic hallucination | a symptom of narcolepsy; vivid dreams that occur just before a person falls asleep; accompanied by sleep paralysis |
| orexin | a peptide, aslo known as hypocretin, produced by neurons whose cell bodies are located in the hypothalamus; their destruction causes narcolepsy |
| REM sleep behavior disorder | a neurological disorder in which the person does not become paralyzed during REM sleep and thus acts out dreams. |
| sleep-related eating disorder | a disorder in which the person leaves his or her bed and seeks out and eats food while sleep-walking, usually without a memory for the episode the next day |
| fatal familial insomnia | a fatal inherited disorder characterized by progressive insomnia |
| rebound phenomenon | the increased frequency or intensity of a phenomenon after it has been temporarily suppressed; for example, the increase in REM sleep seen after a period of REM sleep deprivation |
| adenosine | a neuromodulator that is released by neurons engaging in high levels of metabolic activity; may play a primary role in the initiation of sleep |
| locus coerulueus | a dark-colored group of noradrenergic cell bodies located in the pons near the rostral end of the floor of the fourth ventricle; involved in arousal and vigilance |
| raphe nuclei | a group of nuclei located in the reticular formation of the medulla, pons, and midbrain, situated along the midline; contain serotenergic neurons |
| histamine | a neurotransmitter synthesized from the amino acid histidine; plays an important role in maintenance of wakefulness and arousal |
| tuberomammillary necleus (TMN) | a nucleus in the ventral posterior hypothalamus, just rostral to the mammillary bodies; contains histaminergic neurons involved in cortical activation and behavioral arousal |
| sublaterodorsal nucleus (SLD) | a region of the dorsal pons, just ventral to the locus coeruleus, that contains REM-ON neurons, part of the REM flip-flop |
| ventrolateral periaqueductal gray matter (vlPAG) | a region of the dorsal midbrain, that contains REM-OFF neurons; part of the REM flip-flop |
| circadian rhythm | a daily rhythmical change in behavior or physiological process |
| zeitgeber | a stimulus (usually the light of dawn) that resets the biological clock that is responsible for circadian rhythms |
| suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) | A nucleus situated atop the optic chiasm in the hypothalamus. it contains a biological clock that is responsible for organizing many of the body's circadian rhythms, and was discovered after the nocturnal behaviors of rats were disrupted. |
| melanopsin | a photopigment present in ganglion cells in the retina whose axons transmit information to the SCN, the thalamus, and the olivary pretectal nuclei. they are also involved in the pupillary response to light. |
| advanced sleep phase syndrome | a 4-hour advance in rhythms of sleep and temperature cycles, apparently caused by a mutation of a gene (per2) involved in the rhythmicity of neurons of the SCN. |
| delayed sleep phase syndrome | a 4-hour delay in rhythms of sleep and temperature cycles, possibly caused by a mutation of a gene (per3) involved in the rhythmicity of neurons of the SCN. |
| pineal gland | a gland attached to the dorsal tectum; produces melatonin and plays a role in circadian and seasonal rhythms |
| melatonin | a hormone secreted during the night by the pineal body; plays a role in circadian and seasonal rhythms |
| sexually dimorphic behavior | a behavior that has different forms of that occurs with different probabilities or under different circumstances in males and females |
| gamete | a mature reproductive cell; a sperm or ovum |
| sex chromosome | the X and Y chromosomes, which determine an organism's gender. ormally, XX individuals are female, and XY individuals are male |
| gonad | an ovary or testis |
| Sry | the gene on the Y chromosome whose product instructs the undifferentiated fetal gonads to develop into testes |
| organizational effect (of hormones) | the effect of a hormone on tissue differentiation and devopment |
| activational effect (of hormones) | the effect of a hormone that occurs in the fully developed organism; may depend on the organism's prior exposure to the organizational effects of hormones |
| Mullarian system | the embryonic precursors of the female internal sex organs. Develops into the fimbriae and fallopian tubes, the uterus, and the inner two-thirds of the vagina |
| Wolffian system | the embryonic precursors of the male internal sex organs. Develops into the epididymis, vas deferens, and seminal vesicles. |
| anti-Mullarian system | a peptide secreted by the fetal testes that inhibits the development of the mullerian system, which would otherwise become the female internal sex organs. |
| defeminizing effect | an effect of a hormone present early in development that reduces or prevents the later development of anatomical or behavioral characteristics typical of females |
| androgen | a male sex steroid hormone. Testosterone is the principal mammalian androgen. |
| masculinizing effect | an effect of a hormone present early in development that promotes the later development of anatomical or behavioral characteristics typical of males |
| testosterone | the principal androgen found in males |
| dihydrotestosterone | an androgen, produced from testosterone through the action of the enzyme 5(alpha) reductase |
| androgen insensitivity syndrome | a condition caused by a congenital lack of functioning androgen receptors; in a person with XY sex chromosomes, causes the development of a female with testes but no internal sex organs |
| persistent mullerian duct syndrome | a condition caused by a congenital lack of anti-Mullerian hormone or receptors for this hormone; in a male, causes development of both male and female internal sex organs |
| Turner's syndrome | the presence of only one sex chromosome (an X chromosome); characterized by lack of ovaries but otherwise normal female sex organs and genitalia |
| primary sex characteristics | include gonads, internal sex organs, and external genitalia |
| secondary sex characteristics | enlarged breasts, widened hips, facial hair, deep voice, etc., typically do not appear until puberty |
| gonadotropin-releasing Hormone (GnRH) | a hypothalamic hormone that stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete gonadotropic hormone. |
| gonadotropic hormone | a hormone of the anterior pituitary gland that has a stimulating effect on cells of the gonads. |
| follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) | the hormone of the anterior pituitary gland that cuases development of an ovarian follicle and the maturation of an ovum. |
| luteinizing hormone (LH) | a hormone of the anterior pituitary gland that causes ovulation and development of the ovarian follicle into a corpus luteum. |
| kisspeptin | a peptide produced by neurons in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus under the control of leptin receptors; essential for initiation of puberty and maintenance of reproductive ability |
| estradiol | the principal estrogen of many mammals, including humans |
| estrogen | a class of sex hormones that cause maturation of the femal genitalia, growth of breast tissue, and development of other physical features characteristic of females. |
| menstrual cycle | the female reporductive cycle of most primates, including humans; characterized by growth of the linig of the uterus, ovulation, development of a corpus luteum, and (if pregnancy does not occur), menstruation |
| estrous cycle | the female reproductive cycle of mammals other than primates |
| ovarian follicle | a cluster of epithelial cells surrounding an oocyte, which develops into an ovum |
| corpus luteum | a cluster of cells that develops from the ovarian follicle after ovulation; secretes estradiol and progesterone |
| progesterone | a steroid hormone produced by the ovary that maintains the endometrial lining of the uterus during the later part of the menstrual cycle and during pregnancy; along with estradiol it promotes receptivity in female mammals with estrous cycles |
| refractory period | a period of time after a particular action (for example, an ejaculation by a male) during which that action cannot occur again. |
| coolidge effect | the restorative effect of introducing a new female sex partner to a male that has apparently become "exhausted" by sexual activity |
| oxytocin | a hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary gland; causes contraction of the smooth muscle of the milk ducts, the uterus, and the male ejaculatory system; also serves as a neurotransmitter in the brain |
| lordosis | a spinal sexual reflex seen in many four-legged mammals; arching of the back in response to approach of a male or to touching the flanks, which elevates the hindquarters |
| pheromone | a chemical released by one animal that affects the behavior or physiology of another animal; usually smelled or tasted |
| Lee-Boot effect | the slowing and eventual cessation of estrous cycles in groups of female animals that are housed together; caused by a pheromone in the animals' urine; first observed in mice |
| whitten effect | the synchronization of the menstrual or estrous cycles of a group of females, which occurs only in the presence of a pheromone in a male's urine |
| vandenbergh effect | the earlier onset of puberty seen in female animals that are housed with males; caused by a pheromone in the males' urine; first observed in mice |
| bruce effect | termination of pregnancy cuased by the odor of a pheromone in the urine of a male other than the one that impregnated the female; first identified in mice |
| vomeronasal organ | a sensory organ that detects the presence of certain chemicals, especially when a liquid is actively sniffed; mediates the effects of some pheromones |
| accessory olfactory bulb | a neural structure located in the main olfactory bulb that receives information from the vomeronasal organ |
| meial nucleus of the amygdala | a nucleus that receives olfactory information fro the olfactory bulb and accessory olfactory bulb; involved in the effects of odors and pheromones on reproductive behavior |
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