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HEC Science
Science
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Open-pit mining | involves digging a large, terraced hole in the ground in order to remove a near-surface ore body. |
| Area strip mining | is used in relatively flat areas. The overburden of soil and rock is removed from a large trench in order to expose the ore body |
| Contour strip mining | is a similar technique except that it is used on hilly or mountainous terrains. A series of terraces are cut into the side of a slope, with the overburden from each new terrace being dumped into the old one below. |
| Hydraulic mining | Powerful, high-pressure streams of water are used to blast away soil and rock containing gold, which is then separated from the runoff. |
| sub-surface mining | In the traditional sub surface method a deep vertical shaft is dug and tunnels are dug horizontally outward from the shaft into the ore body. The ore is removed and transported to the surface |
| in-situ mining | An in-situ mine typically consists of a series of injection wells and recovery wells built with acid-resistant concrete and polyvinyl chloride casing. |
| smelting | the ore is crushed and concentrated by a flotation method. The concentrated ore is melted in a smelting furnace where impurities are either burned-off as gas or separated as molten slag. |
| electrowinning | tailings are first leached with a weak acid solution to remove the desired metal. An electric current is passed through the solution and pure metal is electroplated onto a starter cathode made of the same metal |
| heap leaching | heap leaching |
| humus | the decomposition of the waste and dead tissue of organisms |
| non-renewable energy | energy sources such as fossil fuels (coal and oil) and nuclear power. These sources are called non-renewable because they cannot be renewed or regenerated quickly enough to keep pace with their use |
| renewable energy | solar, geothermal, hydroelectric, biomass, and wind. Renewable energy sources are more commonly by used in developing nations. |
| lignite | The softest coal (about 50% carbon), which also has the lowest energy output, has the highest water content (about 50%) and relatively low amounts of smog-causing sulfur. |
| Anthracite | (almost 100% carbon) is the hardest coal and also produces the greatest energy when burned |
| bituminous | With increasing temperature and pressure, lignite is transformed into bituminous coal (about 85% carbon and 3% water).it has the highest sulfur content when the coal is burned, the pollutant sulfur dioxide is released into the atmosphere. |
| Strip-mining | which causes considerable environmental damage in the forms of erosion and habitat destruction |
| Sub-surface mining | of coal is less damaging to the surface environment, but is much more hazardous for the miners due to tunnel collapses and gas explosions. |
| Crude oil | or liquid petroleum, is a fossil fuel that is refined into many different energy products (e.g., gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuel, heating oil) |
| shale | Oil forms underground in rock which is rich in organic materials |
| Oil recovery | The primary stage involves pumping oil from reservoirs.About 25 percent of the oil can be removed.The second stage involves injecting hot water into the reservoir around the well.This water forces the remaining oil from the well where it can be recovered. |
| Oil shale | sedimentary rock with very fine pores that contain kerogen |
| kerogen | a carbon-based, waxy substance |
| Tar sand | a type of sedimentary rock that is impregnated with a very thick crude oil |
| Natural gas | a by-product of oil recovery, as the two commonly share underground reservoirs. Natural gas is a mixture of gases |
| methane (CH4) | most common natural gas |
| ethane | (C2H5) |
| propane | (C3H8) |
| butane | (C4H10) |
| liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) | After recovery, propane and butane are removed from the natural gas and made into LPG |
| nuclear power plant | fission of uranium atoms |
| fission of uranium atoms | in the reactor provides the heat to produce steam for generating electricity |
| reactor core | contains the uranium fuel |
| fuel rods | uranium fuel, which is formed into cylindrical ceramic pellets and sealed in long metal tubes called |
| Control rods | which are made of a material such as boron that absorbs neutrons, are placed among the fuel assemblies. |
| Renewable energy | alternative sources of energy |
| Solar energy | the ultimate energy source driving the earth |
| Passive solar energy | systems are static, and do not require the input of energy in the form of moving parts or pumping fluids to utilize the sun's energy |
| Active solar energy | systems require the input of some energy to drive mechanical devices (e.g., solar panels), which collect the energy and pump fluids used to store and distribute the energy |
| Photovoltaic | cells generate electricity from sunlight |
| Hydroelectric power | is generated by using the energy of flowing water to power generating turbines for producing electricity |
| Biomass energy | the oldest energy source used by humans. Biomass is the organic matter that composes the tissues of plants and animals |
| Geothermal energy | uses heat from the earth's internal geologic processes in order to produce electricity or provide heating |
| concentric city model | the city develops outward from a central business district in a set of concentric rings |
| sector city | develops outward in pie-shaped wedges or strips |
| multiple-nuclei | city evolves with several commercial centers or satellite communities scattered over the urban region instead of a single central business district |
| greenbelts | habitat such as forest areas for animals and open space for human recreation, while blocking the outward growth of the city |
| cluster development model | ousing is concentrated in a restricted portion of a tract, leaving the rest of the land in a relatively natural state with trees, open space and waterways. |
| rangeland | unsuitable for growing grain crops for a variety of reasons: the land may be too rocky or too steep, or the climate may be too cool or too dry |
| pasture | smaller managed grassy areas, are found on farms throughout the United States |
| Prime farmland | land that has a growing season, a water supply from precipitation or irrigation, and sufficiently rich soil to sustain high yields when managed according to modern farming methods |
| desertification | when once-productive land becomes too arid for agricultural use because of climate change or poor land management |
| Old-growth forests | contain numerous dead trees and fallen logs which provide species habitats and are eventually recycled through decay |
| Second-growth forests | less mature and occur when the original ecological community in a region is destroyed, either by human land-clearing activities or by natural disasters |
| Seed-tree cutting | removes most of the trees in an area, leaving only a few scattered trees to provide seeds for regrowth. |
| Clear cutting | large areas of land resulting in the concomitant destruction of a large area of wildlife habitat |
| strip cutting | trees are removed from consecutive narrow strips of land |
| National Park System | consists of more than 80 million acres nationwide |
| National Wilderness Preservation System | contains more than 100 million acres of land that will forever remain wild |
| Research Natural Areas | located throughout the country on public lands serve as outdoor laboratories to study natural systems |
| Biosphere reserves | are organized into three interrelated zones |
| core area | contains the landscape and ecosystems to be preserved |
| buffer zone | an area where activities are controlled to protect the core area |
| transition area | contains a variety of agricultural activities, human settlements and other uses |
| Mechanical energy | puts something in motion |
| Chemical energy | the energy stored in molecules and chemical compounds, and is found in food, wood, coal, petroleum and other fuels |
| Electrical energy | produced when unbalanced forces between electrons and protons in atoms create moving electrons called electric currents |
| Radiant energy | Changes in the internal energy of particles cause the atoms to emit energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation which includes visible light, ultraviolet (UV) radiation, infrared (IR) radiation, microwaves, radio waves, gamma rays, and X-rays |
| Thermal energy | related to the motion or vibration of molecules in a substance. When a thermal system changes, heat flows in or out of the system |
| Nuclear Energy | energy that comes from the binding of the protons and neutrons that make up the nucleus of the atoms |
| nuclear fusion | energy is released when atoms are combined or fused together |
| nuclear fission | energy is released when atoms are split apart |
| carbon cycle | is actually comprised of several inter-connected cycles. The overall effect is that carbon is constantly recycled in the dynamic processes taking place in the atmosphere, at the surface and in the crust of the earth |
| carbon dioxide | The carbon dioxide is taken in by plants and converted to nutrients for growth and sustenance. Animals eat the plants for food and exhale carbon dioxide into the atmosphere when they breathe |
| plate tectonics | |
| photosynthesis | photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and respiration returns it. A significant disruption of one process can therefore affect the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. |
| chlorophyll | a green plant pigment that helps the plant utilize the energy from sunlight to drive the process |
| respiration | The reciprocal process of photosynthesis |
| greenhouse gas | prevents infrared radiation from the earth's surface from escaping into space |
| producers | plants and animals that produce food for the other consumers, and some bacteria remove carbon dioxide |
| inorganic compound | |
| organic compound | |
| chloroplasts | Most chlorophyll is located within the leaf inside cellular structures |
| stomata | carbon dioxide enters the leaves through small openings |
| aerobic respiration | Plants, animals, and most other living things combine oxygen with glucose |
| fast track | |
| Consumers | are unable to use carbon dioxide depend on producers and/or other consumers for their carbon compounds |
| Decomposers | break down the carbon compounds when organisms die and release carbon back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide |
| slow track | something that can take many, many years to complete |
| amino acids | |
| proteins | |
| nucleic acids | |
| Rhizobium | Molecular nitrogen (N2) -able to utilize this nitrogen form directly , which lives on the root nodules of legume |
| cyanobacteria | Molecular nitrogen (N2) -able to utilize this nitrogen form directly,-which are ubiquitous to water and soil environments |
| nitrogen fixation | In order for multi-cellular organisms to use nitrogen, its molecular form (N2) must be converted to other compounds, e.g., nitrates or ammonia |
| nitrogen cycle | Ammonia and nitrate are absorbed by plants through their roots,humans and animals get their nitrogen supplies by eating plants or plant-eating animals.other bacteria convert ammonia and nitrate into molecular nitrogen, which it returned to the atmosphere. |
| nitrous oxide | (N2O) |
| denitrification | The nitrogen is returned to the cycle when bacteria decompose the waste or dead bodies of these higher organisms, and in the process, convert organic nitrogen into ammonia |
| nitric acid | Nitric oxide added to the atmosphere combines with water to form (HNO3) |
| ATP | the carrier of energy for all life forms |
| phosphate | PO43- |
| phosphorus cycle-phosphorus occurs in crustal rocks or in ocean sediments,when phosphate-bearing rock is weathered,the phosphate is dissolved and ends up in rivers,lakes and soils. | Plants take phosphate from the soil,while animals ingest phosphorus by eating plants or plant-eating animals.Phosphate is returned to the soil via the decomposition of animal waste or plant and animal materials. |
| core | makes up 16 percent of the volume of the earth and about 31 percent of the mass. It can be divided into two regions |
| solid inner core | probably mostly metallic iron alloyed with a small amount of nickel, as its density is somewhat greater than that of pure metallic iron |
| liquid outer core | similar in composition, but probably also contains small amounts of lighter elements, such as sulfur and oxygen, because its density is slightly less than that of pure metallic iron |
| mantle | the largest layer in the earth, making up about 82 percent of the volume and 68 percent of the mass of the earth. The mantle is dominated by magnesium and iron-rich (mafic) minerals. |
| asthenosphere | Near the top of the mantle is a region of partially melted rock rises and cooler magma sinks due to differences in density. |
| magma | molten rock |
| crust | the thinnest layer in the earth, making up only 1 percent of the mass and 2 percent of the volume.the crust is rich in elements such as silicon,aluminum,calcium,sodium and potassium. Crustal materials are very diverse,consisting of more than 2000 minerals |
| continental crust | crust has deep buoyant roots that help to support the higher elevations above. The crust contains the mineral resources and the fossil fuels used by humans. |
| oceanic crust | contains more mafic minerals is thinner and denser than the continental crust |
| lithosphere | The layer of the mantle above the asthenosphere plus the entire crust |
| plate tectonics | The lithosphere, and therefore, the earth's crust, is not a continuous shell, but is broken into a series of plates that independently "float" upon the asthenosphere, much like a raft on the ocean |
| subduction zone | The region where subduction takes place |
| divergent plate | occurs when two plates move away from each other. Magma upwelling from the mantle region is forced through the resulting cracks, forming new crust |
| transform boundary | occurs when two plates slide past one another. This interaction can build up strain in the adjacent crustal regions, resulting in earthquakes when the strain is released |
| volcano | occurs when magma (molten rock) reaches the earth's surface through a crack or vent in the crust |
| Shield volcanoes | built almost entirely of highly fluid (low viscosity) lava flows. They form slowly from numerous flows that spread out over a wide area from a central vent. The resultant structure is a broad, gently sloping cone |
| Cinder cones | the simplest type of volcano. They form when lava blown violently into the area breaks into small fragments that solidify and fall as cinders. A steep-sided cone shape is formed around the vent, with a crater at the summit |
| Lava domes | formed when highly viscous lava is extruded from a vent and forms a rounded,steep-sided dome. The lava piles up around and on the vent instead of flowing away, mostly growing by expansion from within. |
| earthquake | occurs when built up strain in a rock mass causes it to rupture suddenly |
| focus | The region where the rupture occurs |
| epicenter | The point on the surface directly above the focus |
| seismograph | measures the propagated waves |
| Richter scale | Based on this information, the earthquake is given a number classification on a modified Richter scale |
| faults | Earthquakes generally occur along breaks in the rock mass |
| tsunami | When an earthquake occurs under the ocean, it can trigger a destructive tidal wave |
| Igneous rocks | the most common rock type found in the earth's crust. They form when magma cools and crystallizes subsurface (intrusive igneous rocks) or lava cools and crystallizes on the surface |
| Sedimentary rocks | formed by the consolidation of the weathered fragments of pre-existing rocks, by the precipitation of minerals from solution, or by compaction of the remains of living organisms |
| lithification | The process of compaction and cementation |
| Metamorphic rocks | formed when solid igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic rocks change in response to elevated temperature and pressure and/or chemically active fluids |
| rock cycle | connections between the earth's internal and external processes and how the three basic rock groups are related to one another |
| Soil formation | begins with unconsolidated materials that are the products of weathering |
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