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BIO2
Biology - Dr. Skydell
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is LIFE? | The quality that distinguishes a vital and functional being from a dead body. |
| Characteristics shared by living organisms: | 1. Organized from the atom to the biosphere 2. Use materials and energy from the environment 3. Reproduce offsprings 4. Growth and development 5. Maintain a relatively constant internal environment (homeostasis) 6. Respond to internal & external stim |
| How are living things organized? | 1. Atom 2. Molecule 3. Cells 4. Tissues 5. Organs 6. Organ System 7. Organism 8. Population 10. Community 11. Ecosystem 12. Biosphere (Earth) |
| Homeostatic Control Mechanism | 1. Receptor (sensor) 2. Control Center - responds to stimulus 3. Effector - causes change to occur |
| What is homeostasis | Physiological functions held within narrow limits; except when illness/injury (it messes it up) |
| Darwin - Evolution | Evolutionary history through which organisms change overtime. Those that survive, reproduce, and by heredity, pass on to their offspring those traits that helped them survive. |
| Humans | - cultural heritage - highly developed brain - completely upright stance - creative language - varied tool use - modification of environment |
| The Basics of Science | - the way of knowing about the natural world - science and scientists should be objective - scientific conclusions may change or modified - studied using the scientific method |
| Steps of the scientific methods | 1. observation 2. hypothesis 3. experiment/ observation 4. conclusion 5. scientific theory |
| Atoms | - building blocks of life, bonded together, form molecules |
| Human Composed of: | Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Hydrogen |
| Isotopes | - Atoms with the same number of protons (atomic number) but different number of neutrons (atomic mass) |
| Ionic Bonds | - Chemical bonds where atoms donate or take electrons resulting in a stable outer shell of 8 electrons |
| Polar | Means atoms with a charge (either positive or negative ions) |
| Covalent Bonds | - Chemical bonds when atoms share electrons resulting in a stable outer shell of 8 electrons |
| Hydrogen Bonds | - Hold water together - Weak bond - makes oxygen slightly negative and hydrogen atoms slightly positive |
| Properties of Water (H2O) | - water can be liquid at room temperature - resist temperature change (helps homeostasis) - high heat of vaporization - frozen ice is less dense, therefore floats! good for life - solvent for polar molecules |
| Hydrophilic | - likes water - ions (charged atoms) and polar (partially charged) molecules that interact with water |
| Hydrophobic | - does not like water - non-ionized atoms and non-polar molecules do not interact with water |
| Acids | molecules that disassociate (come apart) and release hydrogen ions (H+) |
| Bases | molecules that take up hydrogen ions (H+), or release hydroxyl ions (OH-) |
| pH | - measure of H+ concentration - below 7 = acidic & above 7 = basic - move H+ = stronger acid = lower pH number - logarithmic = varies by a factor of 10 |
| Dehydration reaction | removal of water that allows small subunits to link into larger molecules |
| Hydrolysis reaction | addition of water that breaks larger molecules into their smaller subunits |
| THE BIG 4 | Cabohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acid |
| Carbohydrates | - ringed sugar subunits = monosaccharides - function as short and long-term energy storage FORM: H-C-OH |
| Simply Carbs (Sugars) | 1. monosaccharides = 1 carbon ring found in glucose. 2. disaccharides = 2 carbon ring found in maltose |
| Complex Carbs | 1. Polysaccharides = many carbon ring glucose strung together 2. Starch = glucose found in plants |
| Glycogen | Complex carbs found in animals. glucose, strung together, dehydration reaction, stored in liver, and retrieved from the liver when needed. |
| Lipids | - hydrophobic - highest concentration of energy per molecule (calories) - found in cell membranes |
| Lipids are: | Fats, Oils, Phospholipids, and Steroids |
| Fats | - animal origin - solid at room temperature - functions: energy source, organ cushion, insulation |
| Oils | - plant origin - liquid at room temperature |
| Triglyceride | Formed by a glycerol molecule plus 3 fatty acid tails joined together via dehydration reaction. TriG = G + 3 fatty acid tails |
| Good | Unsaturated fats e.g. oils |
| Bad | Saturated fats e.g. butter |
| Worst | Trans fats aka hydrogenated oils |
| Phospholipids | Ionized phosphate head + 2 fatty acid tails Head is hydrophilic and tails are hydrophobic = forms phospholipid bilayer |
| Steroids | Made up of 4 fused carbon rings e.g. cholesterol & sex hormones |
| Proteins | Macromolecules made up of subunits called amino acids strung together in a long line |
| Protein functions: | hormones for regulation, enzymes for speed chemical reactions, antibodies for immunity, transport for motion, support for structure |
| What are amino acids made of? | Amino Group (H2N) + H+C+ Acid Group (COOH) + R (rest of molecule) |
| How do amino acids bond? | Via peptide bonds through dehydration to form POLYPEPTIDES |
| 4 Levels of Protein Organization | 1. Primary - linear order, 2. Secondary - localized folding of peptides into beta-sheets or helix, 3. Tertiary - 3d shape, 4. Quaternary - combination of more than one polypeptide (not all #4) |
| DNA | Deoxyribonucleic Acid - sugar is deoxyribose, bases include A,T,G & C, double stranded / double helix |
| RNA | Ribonucleic Acid - sugar is ribose, bases include A,U,C&G, single stranded /straight |
| What are DNA and RNA made of? | Nucleotide subunits arranged in rungs of ladders, function in the cell to code for proteins |
| 3 Parts of a Nucleotide | - phosphate - Sugar - Nitrogen Containing Base (Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, Cytosine) (replace Thymine with Uracil in RNAs) |
| Nitrogenous Base Pairings in DNA via Hydrogen Bonds are: | Adenine + Thymine Guanine + Cytosine |
| What is ATP | Energy currency of life Adenosine triphosphate 1 adenosine, 3 phosphate - Can be recharged when ADP with 3rd phosphate |
| The Cell Theory | - a cell is the basic unit of life - all living things are made up of cell/s - new cells always arise from preexisting cells |
| Why Are Most Cells Small? | - cell surface area is squared and cell volume is cubed - surface area limits how large a cell can be and still be efficient and metabolically active |
| Two Types of Cells | Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic |
| Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells BOTH Contain: | - cell membrane (phospholipid bilayer) - cytoplasm - DNA |
| Characteristics of a Plasma Membrane | - phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins - contains cholesterol for support - contains glycoproteins and glycolipids (carbs attached to proteins and lipids) - selectively permeable |
| Glycoproteins and Glycolipids in Plasma Cell Membrane: | receptors for hormones, channels to passively pass materials, carriers to actively pass materials, enzymes to catalyze reactions, antigents that identify each cell |
| What is Selectively Permeable? | - plasma cell membrane allows some things to pass inside the cell, while keeping other substances out - H20 uses gateway - non-charged O2, CO2 pass through - marcro molecules cannot pass |
| How Things Move Across the Plasma Membrane | Diffusion, Osmosis, Facilitate Transport, Active Transport, Endocytosis and exocytosis |
| Solvent | - A liquid that dissolves things - Will always move to equalize concentration of solute particles |
| Solute | - What the solvent dissolves - will always move down a concentration gradient |
| Diffusion | The random movement of molecules from a higher concentration grade to a lower concentration - passive and requires no energy |
| Osmosis | The diffusion of water molecules |
| Tonicity | Isotonic: solute = H20 Hypotonic: solute -, H2O + inside the cell Hypertonic: solute +, H2O - inside the cell |
| Facilitate Diffusion | The passive transport of molecules across the plasma membrane from a higher to a lower concentration via protein carrier. No energy required |
| Active Transport | The movement of molecules from a lower to a higher concentration via protein carrier using ATM as energy. Active = energy |
| Endocytosis | The transport of molecules or cells into the cell via invagination (infolding) of the plasma membrane, to form a vesicle |
| Exocytosis | The transport of molecules out of the cell via fusion of a vesicle with the plasma membrane |
| Nucleus - Structure and Function | - Bound by porous double nuclear membrane - House DNA and associated proteins called chromatin - Contains nucleoplasm (not cytoplasm) |
| Ribosomes - Structure and Function | - Organelles made up of rRNA and protein - Found bound to rough ER and free floating cells - site of protein synthesis |
| Endomembrane System | - series of membranes within a cell that transport molecule: Nuclear Envelope, Rough and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi Apparatus, Vesicles |
| Endomembrane System Summary | Rough ER studded with ribosomes make protein, Smooth ER aids in making lipids, Golgi Apparatus modify and process proteins and lipids and packages them into vesicles, Vesicles transport different substances, Lysosomes have digestive enzymes |
| Cytoskeleton | A series of proteins that maintains cell share as well as anchors and/or moves organelles around inside the cell |
| 3 Types of Fibers | Large Microtubules, Thin Actin Filaments, Medium-Sized Intermediate Filaments |
| Cilia and Flagella | Cilia = hairlike Flagella = tail - both used in movement and have "9 pair surrounding 1 pair" |
| Cell Metabolism | All chemical reactions in a cell, often carried out by enzyme sequences. 1. enzyme + substrate, 2. enzyme/substrate complex 3. enzyme + product |
| The role of enzymes in cellular activity: | Most are proteins, often named for the substrate they work on, are specific to each substrate, have active sites where a substrate binds lock and key, recycled after, helped by coenzymes |
| Adenosine Triphosphate | ATP. Currency of life, energy from cellular respiration used for metabolic work. |
| Mitochondria | Highly folded "power house". Breaks down glucose to form ATP, which stores energy - Uses O2, forms CO2 and H2O as waste. |
| Cellular Respiration | Glucose + O2 -> CO2 + H2O + ATP |
| Steps for Cellular Respiration | 1. glycolysis 2. citric acid cycle 3. electron transport chain |
| Step 1: Glycolysis | GLUCOSE -> 2 pyruvate + NADH + 2 ATP Occurs in the mitochondria, breaks 1 glucose into 2 pyruvates, makes NAHD and 2 ATP, anaerobic process |
| Step 2: Citric Acid Cycle | PRYRUVATE ACID -> broken down into H+ transported by NAD+ to produce 2 ATP makes O2 and CO2 as waste. This step requires Oxygen. |
| Step 3: Electron Transport Chain | NADH from #1 & #2 contain high energy electrons and H+, which forms 32 ATP. Forms H2O only. |
| Besides glucose, what other molecules can fuel respiration to make ATP? | 1. other carbs 2. proteins 3. lipids |
| Fermentation | Process of making ATP without oxygen (anaerobic), occurs in the cytoplasm, anaerobic process, involves glycolysis, NADH passes electrons and H+ to pyruvate and makes 2 ATP and lactic acid. Used for bursts / short-term energy |
| What is a tissue? | A collection of cells of the same type that performs a common function. |
| TISSUE - 4 MAJOR TYPES | 1. Connective - binds and supports 2. Muscular - moves things 3. Nervous - receives stimuli, conducts nerve impulses 4. Epithelial - covers surfaces and lines cavities |
| CONNECTIVE TISSUE (TYPE OF TISSUE) | Binds and support part of the body. All have specilized cells, ground substance and protein fibers. Ground substance is non-cellular and varies from solid to fluid. Ground substance and protein fibers together make up the matrix of the tissue. |
| TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE | Fibrous, Supportive, Fluid |
| FIBROUS TISSUE (Type of Connective Tissue) | 2 Types: Dense and Loose, both contain fibroblast cells embedded within a matrix of collagen and elastin fibers. |
| Fibrous - Loose | Found supporting epithelium and many internal organs. Adipose tissue is a special loose fibrous tissue where fat is stored. |
| Fibrous - Dense | Has many collagen fibers tighly packed. Tendons and ligaments. |
| Supportive Connective Tissue aka CARTILAGE | Cells (chondroblast and chondrocytes) are in chambers called lacunae. Matrix is solid but flexible. Lacks direct blood supply (slow healing) |
| 3 Types of Cartilage (or supportive tissue) | 1. Hyaline: fine collagen fibers location: nose, ends of long bones and fetal skeleton 2. Elastic cartilage: more elastic fibers than collagen fibers location: outer ear 3. Fibrocartilage: strong collagen fibers location: discs between vertebrae |
| Supportive Connective Tissue aka BONE | Cells in the chambers called lacunae. Matrix is solid and rigid, made of collagen fibers and calcium salts. |
| 2 Types of Bone (Supportive Fibers) | 1. Compact Bone - made of repeating circular units called osteons which contain the hard matrix and living cells and blood vessels (shafts of long bones) 2. Spongy bone: open, lattice work w/ irregular spaces (ends of long bones) |
| Fluid Connective Tissue: BLOOD | Made of liquid matrix called plasma and cellular components called formed elements. |
| 3 Formed Elements of Fluid Connective Tissue / BLOOD: | 1. Red blood cells - carry oxygen 2. White blood cells - fight infection 3. Platelets - help clot blood |
| TISSUE | Collection of the same type of cells that performs a common function |
| CONNECTIVE TISSUE | Binds and support, have specialized cells, ground substances and protein fibers. |
| GROUND SUBSTANCES | They are non-cellular & varies from solid to fluid. |
| CONNECTIVE TISSUE MATRIX | Combination of ground substances and protein fibers |
| TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES | 1. Fibrous 2. Supportive 3. Fluid |
| CONNECTIVE TISSUE - FIBROUS | Contains fibroblast embedded within matrix of collagen and elastin |
| TYPES OF FIBROUS - CONNECTIVE TISSUE | 1. Dense - many collagen fibers, tendons & ligaments 2. Loose - found supporting epithelium and internal organs |
| TYPES OF SUPPORTIVE - CONNECTIVE TISSUE | 1. Cartilage - hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage 2. Bone - Compact, Spongy |
| FLUID - CONNECTIVE TISSUE | Made of liquid plasma and cellular components called formed elements |
| TYPES OF FLUID - CONNECTIVE TISSUE | 1. Blood - WBC, RBC, Patelets 2. Lymph |
| SUPPORTIVE - CONNECTIVE TISSUE | Chondroblasts and chondocytes are in lacunae. Matrix is solid but flexible. Slow healing. |
| MUSCULAR TISSUE | Allows movement made of muscle fibers and cells containing actin and myosin protein fibers (move by contracting) |
| TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE | 1. Skeletal - long, cylindrical, striated, fibers w/ actin & myosin 2. Smooth - spindle shape, one nucleus per cell, involuntary 3. Cardiac - heart only |
| NERVOUS TISSUE | Allows for communication between cells through sensory input integration of data & motor output |
| TYPES OF NERVOUS TISSUE | 1. Neurons - nerve cells, dendrites (towards), axom (away) 2. Neuroglia - supporting cell around and between neurons |
| EPITHELIAL TISSUE | Group of cells that form a tight, continuos network line body cavities, cover body surface, found inside ducts of glands. Cells are anchored to basement membrane. |
| EPITHELIAL TISSUE NAMES | Named after their cell layers 1. Simple - 1 layer, 2. Stratified - more than one layer 3. Pseudostratified - faux multi-layer, just has one Named after the Shape of Tissue 1. Cubodial, 2. Columnar, 3. Squamous |
| TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM | Found in the urinary tract only (bladder, ureters). Changes shape under tension. |
| CELL CONNECTIONS WITHIN A TISSUE | - tight junction - adhesion junction - gap junction |
| TIGHT JUNCTIONS (cell connections) | - proteins join & form an impermeable barrier between plasma membranes in a zipper-like function (gastrointestinal tract, kidneys) |
| ADHESION JUNCTION (cell connections) | - cytoskeletal fibers join between cells & have flexibility (skin) |
| GAP JUNCTIONS (cell connections) | - a fusion of adjacent plasma membranes with small channels between them that allow small molecules to diffuse through from one cell to another adjoining cell (heart) |
| CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM - FUNCTION | 1. generates blood pressure 2. transports blood 3. exchanges nutrients, gases & wastes at the capillaries 4. regulates blood flow |
| BLOOD PATH THROUGH THE VASCULAR SYSTEM | Heart -> Arteries -> Arterioles -> Capillaries -> Venules -> Veins -> Back to the heart |
| ARTERIES AND ARTERIOLES (Cadiovascular Sysem) | - Carry blood away from the heart - walls made up of 3 layers |
| 3 LAYERS OF ARTERIES AND ARTERIOLES (Cardiovascular System) | 1. endothelium Or intima 2. media - the thick muscle layer 3. adventitia - outer connective tissue |
| ARTERIOLES (Cardiovascular System) | Small arteries just before capillaries that regulate blood pressure by narrowing and dilating (media) |
| CAPILLARIES (Cardiovascular System) | Microscopic vessels between arterioles and venules. Made up on ONE LAYER of epithelial tissue, where exchange of substance between blood and body cell/tissue occurs. VERY LARGE surface area (3200 sq. ft) RBC pass through capillaries in single file. |
| EXCHANGE OF SUBSTANCES IN & OUT OF BLOOD IN CAPILLARIES (Cardiovascular System) |
Created by:
joanesp
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