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Planetary Geo
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| identify processes and materials on surface | Materials |
| how materials are put together | Structure |
| erosion, deposition, etc. | Processes at work |
| how long have they been around | Time (age) |
| number of stars/galaxy | 500 b |
| Big bang took place ______ years ago. | 13 billion |
| # of years ago when our solar system condensed out of an interstellar cloud of dust. As it contracts, the cloud begins to rotate. In maybe 50 million years, the solar system formed. | 4.6 billion |
| Universe was ___ hydrogen ___ helium | 90%; 10% |
| we’re ___ of the way out of our galaxy | 2/3 |
| What type of planets are mercury, venus, earth, mars? • small, rocky, hard surfaces, small size and mass • earth is biggest, venus is close but slightly smaller | terrestrial (or earth-like) |
| What type of planets are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune? • Have ring systems • Lots of moons • Mostly gas, no solid surface • Much lower average density (made from lightest two gasses) | gas giants (or Jovian) |
| streamlined hills carved from bedrock or any consolidated or semi-consolidated material by the dual action of wind abrasion (from dust & sand) and deflation. Not the same as dunes. | Yardangs |
| collection of physical information about a target without being in physical contact with the object | remote sensing |
| manifestations of a fault, lines created on a fault service as one slips past another. Big would be 10cm. | Slickenline |
| receives reflected or transmitted energy from the target • visible, near infrared, thermal infrared | passive imaging |
| image system generated energy and bounces it off the target | active imaging |
| -smooth surface, no backscatter – radar dark -rough surface, scattering & returns – radar bright -corner reflections – not hugely important on other planets | Radar consideration |
| color pictures generated from multiple images of the same terrain taken through colored filters. each image/filter records different range gets detailed information about target materials (rock type, moisture content, mineral content, etc) | Multispectral images |
| put images together for color | false color image |
| a theoretical object that absorbs 100% of the radiation that hits it. Therefore it reflects no radiation and appears perfectly black. | Black body |
| energy reflected back and radiated back are _________. Controls temperature of planets. | different |
| smooth surface, no backscatter (like a body of water) | radar dark |
| rough surface, scattering & returns (like a mountain range) | radar bright |
| tectonic valley produced by faults on both sides | Graben |
| vertical, oblique, visual light, ridges, troughs, icy, pancake domes, gullies, cracks, ice pinnacles, impact craters, volcanic craters, ejecta, faults | terms to describe planetary landscapes |
| things in space appear more red as they're moving away from you | red shift/doppler effect |
| • star passing the sun closely tore material out of the sun, from which planets could form o wrong because stars are too far apart to perturb | catastrophic hypotheses (passing star hypothesis) |
| • Rings of material separate from he spinning cloud, carrying away angular momentum of the cloud -> cloud could contract further (forming the sun) | Evolutionary hypotheses (Laplace’s nebular hypothesis) |
| -basis of modern theory of planet formation -planets form at the same time form the same cloud as the star -planet formation sites observed today as dust disks of T Tauri stars | Solar Nebular Hypothesis |
| -icy nucleus, which evaporates and gets blown into space by solar wind pressure -mostly objects in highly elliptical orbits, occasionally coming close to the sun -formed in oort cloud past pluto | Comets |
| -small dust grains throughout the solar system -if they collide with the earth, they evaporate in the atmosphere | Meteoroids |
| meteoroids visible as streaks of light | meteors |
| -rocky planet material formed from clumping together of dust grains in the protostellar cloud - the clumping together of grains of solid matter, planetesimals -planetesmals collide to form planets -grow through condensation and acceleration | Formation and Growth of planetesimals |
| grains of solid matter in protostellar cloud, (few cm to km in size) | planetesimals |
| -simplest form of planet growth -unchanged composition of accreted matter over time -as rocks melted, heavier elements sank to the center (differentiation) -this also produced a secondary atmosphere (outgassing) | The growth of protoplanets |
| Planets rotate in what direction? | clockwise |
| What planets rotate in a counter-clockwise direction? | Venus, Uranus, and Pluto |
| -observations of extrasolar planets indicate that jovian planets are common -protoplanetary disks tend to be evaporated quickly by the radiation of nearby massive stars -too short for jovian planets to grow | The jovian problem |
| Inherited from the disk shape and rotation of the Solar Nebula | Disk shape and common sense of revolution |
| Result of decreasing temperature throughout the Solar Nebula → Further out, lighter elements condensed out to form heavier, gaseous planets | Division of Terrestrial / Jovian Planets |
| Originating in the Oort Cloud, very far away from the sun, in the coldest parts of the Solar Nebula | Icy Comets |
| • radiation pressure of the sun • solar wind • sweeping up of space debris by planets • ejection by close encounters with planets | remains of the protostellar nebula were cleared away by |
| many stars should have planets -when you form a star, you form a planet. Common process. Life is an evolutionary process of planet formation. Life formed in the ocean. And came out once there was enough ozone to protect from ultraviolet radiation. | Extrasolar planets (exoplanets) |
| collection of physical information about a target without being in physical contact with the object -electromagnetic energy (light, heat, radio waves) -magnetic, gravity, radioactivity | Remote sensing |
| how small is the object that needs to be seen? • Shield volcano. They’re pretty big so maybe you don’t need a lot. 10 km • Sand dune. Maybe 100 m. • Slickenline. Really small, 1 cm | spacial resolution |
| how much energy is needed to see an object? | spectral sensitivity |
| receives reflected or transmitted energy from the target • visible, near infrared, thermal infrared | passive imaging |
| image system generated energy and bounces it off the target o radar can see through clouds (venus, titan) o target reflection influences by slope, aspect, and surface roughness | active imaging |
| bounce radio waves or triangulate | methods for finding distance to the moon |
| Know the velocity of radio waves, measure time it takes to bounce back, solve for 0.5D (because waves bounce there and back) V=D/T | Radio wave method (distance) |
| measure distance between 2 points on earth (L). draw straight line from earth to moon and hypotenuse. Straight line is D. D = L (cotangent of acute angle) | Triangulation method (distance) |
| going around the sun | revolution |
| spinning in circles to give us day and night | rotation |
| what if your wife orbits my dick | ayo copernicus |
| o Every planet traces out an ellipse with the sun at one focus | Kepler’s 1st empirical law |
| Every planet moves such that the rate at which ‘area is swept out’ is constant (one month triangle) (suggests that it goes faster when its closer to the sun) | Kepler's 2nd empirical law |
| For all planets, the square of the period of revolution about the sun (T) divided by the cube of the average distance (R) from the sun is the same. T^2/R^3 = constant (K) | Kepler's 3rd empirical law |
| Every body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled to change by impressed forces Change in motion is proportional to motive force impressed Force = Mass x Acceleration To every act there is an = but op react | Newton's laws |
| • F = G (msmp)/R^2 where o G = universal gravitational constant o Ms = mass of satellite o Mp = mass of planet o R = distance between satellite and planet | Newton's law of gravitation |
| billions of years old (or x10^9) | Ga |
| time required for 1/2 of the parent atoms to decay to daughter atoms | half life |
| rate at which isotope decays. Can be thought of as the % chance that any given radioactive atom will decay in any given year. | decay constant |
| Intrusive igneous rock composed predominantly of Ca-rich plagioclase feldspar with some pyroxene ± garnet | Anorthosite |
| formed as a result failed accretion due to gravitational influence of Jupiter | asteroid formation |
| icy-rock planetesimals and are found in two locations • The Edgeworth-Kuiper (E-K) comet belt beyond Neptune (40 to 1000 AU). Some E-K objects are larger than Pluto • The Oort comet belt (1000 to 100,000 AU) | comet formation |
| particulate emissions from the sun which consists of hydrogen ions, helium ions, heavier ions and electrons. Sun loses about 10^7 tons/year via this. | solar wind |
| weather, climate (mean surface temp) | impact of sun on earth's lower atmosphere |
| formation of ozone & ionosphere, causes aurora | impact of sun on earth's upper atmosphere |
| study of upper atmospheres of planets. involves several different areas of science including atomic physics, molecular physics, plasma physics, physical chemistry, electromagnetic theory, spectroscopy and particles and fields. | aeronomy |
| base of the exosphere, where atmospheric gasses escape due to the high mean free path. gasses with enough energy can escape planet's gravitational hold | exobase |
| collisional distance between molecules | mean free path |
| Less than 400 nm or 0.4 micron | Ultraviolet radiation |
| 400 nm (0.4 micron) to 800 nm (0.8 micron) | Visible radiation |
| 800 nm (0.8 micron) to 3200 nm (3.2 micron) | Infrared radiation |
| Varies with rotation of the earth, 11-year solar activity cycle, and the life of the sun (increasing in luminosity) | Variability of solar radiation |
| distribution of each gas decreases with altitude based on the mass of the gas. A heavy gas, like CO2, decreases rapidly with altitude. Lighter gases, like H and He, fall off slowly with altitude and are the major constituents of the upper atmosphere | diffusive equilibrium |
| Hydrogen (78%) Helium (20%) ~1% O, C, N, Ne, Ni, Fe, Si, Ca | Chemistry of the solar system |
| H, He | Sun chemistry |
| Silicates, Fe/Ni | Terrestrial planet chemistry |
| H. CH4, H2O, NH3 | Jovian planet chemistry |
| production of liquids & solids from a cooling gas | Condensation |
| a heated glowing solid body moving through the atmosphere | Meteor |
| a solid body from space that hits the Earth’s surface | Meteorite |
| glassy, frothy looking crust caused by rapid partial melting when entering Earth’s atmosphere | Fusion Crust |
| little thumbprint looking depressions | Regmaglypts (reg-muh-glipts) |
| • Stones (95%) o Chondrites (86%) • Carbonaceous Chondrites (5%) • Ordinary Chondrites (81%) o Achondrites (9%) • Stony Irons (1%) • Irons (4%) | Types of meteorites |
| • glassy spherules/chondrules in meteorites • Mg, Fe silicates • Rapid cooling of molten material “firey rain” • Origin o Quenched directly from solar nebula o From impacts on surface of planetesimals | Chondrites |
| • low temp. condensates • abundance of volatiles • rich in organic compound • matrix- opaque carbon & magnetite • Amino acids! • Allende meteorite refractory inclusions dated at 4,559 +- 5 Ma | Carbonaceous Chondrites |
| • Lack H2O & Organics • Fe is either o Oxidized in minerals or o Reduced, pure metal • Many contain angular fragments – BRECCIA | Ordinary Chondrites |
| • look like Igneous ricks – slower cooling than chondrites • melting & differentiation (from what) • EUCRITES – basalt/gabbro come with vesticular texture | Achondrites |
| basalt/gabbro come with vesticular texture | EUCRITES |
| • Iron/Nickel alloys classified based on o Ni-content o Crystal structure • Interlocking mineral growth – Widmanstatten Pattern | Iron Meteorites |
| Chondrites - lower temperature (never melted, not metamorphosed) • Irons – melting and separation of Fe-Ni (in cores of differentiated meteorites) | How do Meteorites Form? From where do they originate? |
| Could plausibly form from an impact crater with energy to escape velocity. • ‘young’ ages (~2.2 Ga – 18- Ma) • Igneous rocks -> basalt to gabbro to ultramafic • 114 Maritain meteorites of which most are shergottites (similar to earth or lunar sampl | Martian meteorites |
| continuous layer of dusty rubble at the Moon’s surface | Lunar regolith |
| • Drilling o We’ve only drilled down 12-13 kilometers (9 miles) • Planetary Density • Moment of Interia • Planetary Oblateness • Magnetic Properties • Seismology • Experimental Petrology | Methods for discovering planetary interiors |
| • Earth’s density is twice as dense as regular rocks • Mercury is as dense as earth even though its smaller • Moon is about as dense as a regular rock | density and radius comparisons |
| mass x velocity | momentum |
| moment of inertia x angular velocity (L = I w) | angular momentum (for rotating bodies) |
| For a uniform solid sphere, I = 0.4/(mr2) For a sphere with all the mass on the outside, I = 0.667/(mr2) | moment of inertia |
| Have Magnetic Fields- Earth, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune Weak Magnetic Field- Mercury No Magnetic Field- Venus, Mars, Moon | planetary magnetic fields |
| P waves are direct. S waves can be refracted. Then there's the S wave shadow zone. And epicentral angle. they can tell you about the interiors. | seismograms and planetary interiors |
| radiation emitted by a body that emits (or absorbs) equally well at all wavelengths | blackbody radiation |
| As energy moves away from the sun, it is spread over a greater and greater area. | Inverse Square Law |
| hotter objects emit shorter wavelengths and more energy than colder objects. | temperature and wavelengths |
| -distance from sun -composition of atmosphere -reflectivity of planet, etc. | Temperature of a planet and what determines it |
| -upturned original layers • sometimes even overturned layers • elastic rebound response -lens of broken material (breccia) -uplift along the rim -ejecta -fractured bedrock -impact melt | Impact craters cross section (label diagram) |
| impacts create tremendous pressure (~GigaBars) on the target material | shock metamorphism |
| 1 x 10^9 | What is a GigaBar of pressure? |
| 1 bar (1 kg/cm^2) | What is atmospheric pressure? |
| evidence of an impact. have that crazy cool pattern on them like the rock made up solely of iron and nickel | Shock lamellae |
| common in locations where a hard rock has been hit radial cone fractures around explosive | Shatter cones |
| ½ mv^2 -where m = mass, v = velocity -measured in joules | Kinetic Energy Equation |
| molten beads of rock ejected into air, rapidly cooled to glassy beads | tektites |
| -identified in 1993 -breccia -~90 km in diameter -drill cores dated to 35 Ma (Eocene) | Chesapeake Bay Impact Structure |
| # of craters (D>4km)/100,000 km^2 | Crater Density Units |
| -consider a fresh lava plain (crater density = 0) -over time the crater density increases -eventually new impacts destroy old craters -cannot increase crater density beyond this point -Sedimentation, etc. might fill craters | Crater Saturation Equilibrium |
| -the transfer of heat through the movement of material (flow) -heat lost by conduction, heat supplied by conduction. Flow like lava lamp | Convection |
| transfer by contact between materials | conduction |
| Cognition, Dexterity, Adaptability, Efficiency | Why Humans? |
| rapidly recognize and respond to unexpected findings; sophisticated rapid pattern recognition | Cognition |
| humans are capable of lifting rocks, hammering outcrops, selecting samples, etc. much better than robotic manipulation | Dexterity |
| humans are able to react in real time to new and unexpected situations, problems, hazards and risks | Adaptability |
| robotic manipulation require several sols to accomplish what humans can do in a matter of minutes | Efficiency |
| The surface, interior, and margins of the polar caps Cold, warm, or hot springs or underground hydrothermal systems Source or outflow regions associated with near-surface aquifers that might be responsible for the “gullies” that have been observed | Possibility of present life |
| Source or outflow regions for the catastrophic flood channels Ancient highlands that formed at a time when surface water may have been widespread Deposits of minerals that are associated with surface/subsurface water/ancient hydrothermal systems, spring | Possibility of past life |
| Rocks • basalt • olivine phenocrysts • plagioclase-rich matrix • vesicles (means gas when rock was formed) • (Fe, Mg)2 SiO4 + CaAl2Si2O8 -clay & iron oxide minerals • can be formed from aforementioned rock • Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + Fe2O3 | Geology of Mars' surface |
| tectonics, volcanism, heating | Causes of Crustal Extension |
| talks about how much topography is at, above, or below sea level. measured in modals. | Hypsometry |
| occur above dilatational normal faults. like sand or something on the surface. dilatational components (opening instead of sliding) | Pit craters |
| linear dramatic changes in topography | scarps |
| Oldest • from 4.6 BY – 3.7 BY • characterized by heavy bombardment o 98-99% of craters on Mars & Moon then • Valley networks o Caused by the erosion of rivers o Length of 1000km, width of • Warm and wet | Noachian period |
| Middle • 3.7 BY – 2.9 BY • Characterized by volcanism o 4 largest volcanoes in solar system here • Outflow channels o Geological remnants of fast-moving water draining mostly in the northern hemisphere. Came from interior. | Hesperian period |
| Youngest • 2.9 BY – present • low impact rates • tharsis volcanism continues o maybe as soon as 500 MY ago • cold dry mars | Amazonian period |
| -about 3x higher than mount Everest -covers and area the size of Arizona -500 km across, 25 km high | Olympus Mons |
| -almost 4 x longer than grand canyon -could stretch across north America -300 km across, due to crustal deformation | Valles Marineris |
| region of magnetism in the crust of mars between 10 degrees S to 70 degrees S at longitude of ~80 degrees. Crust is 1000x more magnetized in that region than any planet in the solar system. Magnetic fields have the ability to deflect solar radiation | Mars Crustal Magnetism |
| -on earth, almost all of atmospheric methane is produced by life -Methane emanates from 3 distinct regions. -they all represent the oldest crust on mars, 4.6 billion years old. Noachian crust. -In the highlands, so you can’t put a rover down there. | Methane in the Atmosphere of Mars |
| -.5 inch to 1 inch across. -form in aqueous environments | Martian blueberries |
| -Flyby (FB) -Orbiter (O) -Lander (L) -Rover (R) -soon airplane | Ways to study Mars or Entry Descent & Landing (EDL) |
| • July 14, 1965 • 10,000 km • took 22 pictures (NY Times – “Mars is a Dead Planet”) | Mariner 4 – FB |
| • 3,000 km • July 31, 1969 • 2 dozen images | Mariner 6 – FB |
| • August 5, 1969 • 2 dozen images | Mariner 7 – FB |
| • November 13, 1971 • Covered with a dust storm for 6 months (dust 10 km thick) • 6,000 images (better quality) • 200 km above the surface | Mariner 9 - O |
| • July 20, 1976 • Was supposed to be 4th of July | Viking 1 – O/L |
| • September 3, 1976 • 50,000 images (O) • 5,000 images (L) | Viking 2 – O/L |
| • MOLA was on it (lydar, mapped topography) • September 11, 1997 • 1/10 km resolution, maybe better, maybe 100m to 10m in some places | Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) |
| • July 4, 1997 • Had a Rover named Sojourner • Air Bags (bouncy ball, 150 times) (didn’t pollute landing site with hydrazine from rocket fuel) | Mars Pathfinder |
| • October 24, 2001 • Had a neutron spectrometer (discovered subsurface water) | Odyssey – O |
| • December 25, 2003 • By Europe • Has high resolution…spectrometer? | Mars Express – O |
| • Spirit o January 4, 2004 o Still working perfectly • Opportunity o January 25, 2004 • Air Bags • Found a lot of minerology • Covered distance of 15 km • Malfunction led to discovery | Mars Exploration Rovers - O |
| • March 10, 2006 • 1st time for high resolution spy camera | Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) – O |
| • May 25, 2008 • Used retro rockets • Died in Arctic freeze | Phoenix - L |
| • August 6, 2012 • Sky crane • 1 metric ton • 13 instrument • 6 independent wheels | Mars Science Laboratory (MSL), Curiosity - R |
| • north below sea level, very few impact craters, average depth between -2 and -4 km • north is where the ocean used to be, about 1/3 of planet • southern is elevated. Between 1-3 km above sea level, very heavily impacted. About 2/3 | Mars dichotomy |
| impact crater, 3,000 miles across, 4 billion years old | Hellis basin |
| ~12 on Earth. Gas in air bubbles is 95% CO2, 3% N2, 2% Ar. August 6, 1996 they announced complex organic molecules and features that look like microfossils of bacteria we’d find on earth | Martian meteorites |
| • Viscosity (silicate content) • Slope of the volcano • Pressure due to gravity (other planets) • Climate, material it’s on • How long it stays in the liquid state? • How explosive it is, gas content | Factors controlling volcanic flow |
| (gentle slopes, 5-10 degrees, basaltic lava flows) | Shield Volcano |
| (steep slopes, 30 degrees, stratified layers of ash/lava, porphyritic basalt) | Tephra cone |
| (vesicular basalt & scoria, tephra is solid material, more ejecta smaller flows, steepest slopes) | Composite/stratovolcano |
| Sometimes small volcanoes inside. Big volcano has to explode its top off, eject all its magma, and collapses in on itself. | Volcanic caldera |
| Inside mount st Helens. Very rubbley. Kinda muffin shaped. Almost always made of intermediate or felsic lava. Very viscous. | Lava domes |
| local melting | Anatexis |
| • Venus image made from radar (shows reflectivity) and elevation model (which you drape radar over). They usually vertically exaggerate the image • What type of volcano? Shield. • lava flow is radar bright, which tells us it’s a rough surface. | Sapas Mons |
| • 50 km across • caldera or crater on top of flat top • flat, concave summit • radiating ridges and valleys • west rim breach by flows • collapse pits? • Type of Venus volcano? Not one we have on earth | The tick |
| late 70s with voyager Diameter of 3,640 km plumes as high as 300 km you can see volcanoes in infrared (not in arcs like earth) they kind of all over the place, with a little bit of a special scale Density ~3530 kg/m^3 (denser than the mantle & ice) | Volcanism on Io |
| 3,000 ft scarp into caldera filled with lava lake proposed molten sulfur volcanism sulfur gets less viscous as it gets hotter 150c then gets more viscous when it gets above that, then drops back down silicate w/ associated sulfurous lavas | Tupan patera |
| -both sulfur and silicate magmas -both effusive (lava flows) and pyroclastic eruptions -Big (~5-9 km) volcanoes, thus -rigid lithosphere, silicate crust to support load -no earth style plate tectonics | More Io volcanism |
| Weathering (Mechanical & Chemical) Mass Wasting Fluvial Processes Eolian Processes Processes Associated with Ice | Surface processes |
| change in geologic materials that occur at or near the surface of a planet. Mechanical is breaking things into smaller pieces, chemical is taking one mineral and turning it into another mineral (water, oxygen, acids) | Weathering (Mechanical & Chemical) |
| movement of geologic materials downslope mostly due to gravity. Steepness also plays a role, saturation perhaps (landslides) | Mass Wasting |
| the transport, erosion, and deposition due to moving water | Fluvial Processes |
| processes that involve transporting sediments by wind | Eolian Processes |
| (frost, glaciers, maybe not water ice) | Processes associated with ice |
| 90% SiO2, 5% FeO. Quartz, Clay Minerals, and Fe Oxides (which form as coatings on grains). | Reddish sandstone |
| -Oxidation – loss of electrons (Fe2+ - Fe3+) -Reduction – gain of electrons -Under what conditions is Fe oxidized? -On Earth we need oxygen and/or water | Oxidation & Reduction |
| Break Basalt into Small Pieces • Mass wasting • Erosion • Wind processes Pyroxene (FeSiO3) major mineral in basalt FeSiO3 + H2O = FeO + Silicic Acid FeO has solid coating, Silicic acid moves away in solution Liquid water to make red Fe-Oxide st | Martian dust recipe |
| -groundwater seepage -evaporative cooling -water freezes behind ‘ice dam’ -‘ice dam’ eventually breaks and out rushes a torrent of water carving channels -that will then percolate back into the surface or refreeze | Possibility for contemporary liquid water |
| -transverse -parabolic -longitudinal -barchans o one direction, not a lot of sand -star o lots of wind direction, lots of sand Shapes controlled by • surface material cohesion • wind velocity & variability • structures & materials around dune • | Types of Dunes |
| -sand dune is constructive • never symmetric • steep side opposite of wind • windward side is the wide side -What does it take to make a dune? • Sediment source • Sufficient wind • Velocity • Accumulation area | Dunes as constructive landforms |
| Vc = 0.1√[(Ps – Pa)/Pa]gD -where • Ps = sediment density • Pa = air density • g = acceleration due to gravity • D = grain diameter -answer in ms^-1 | critical velocity formula |
| the volcanic emission of gasses from the interior of a planet that results in the formation of an atmosphere around the planet | outgassing |
| H, He, O, C, Ne, N, Mg, Si, Fe, S, Al, Ar, Ca, Na, Ni | 15 most abundant substances in our solar system |
| H2, He, CH4 | 3 most abundant substances in jovian planets |
| CO2, N2, H2O | 3 most abundant substances in terrestrial planets |
| Venus: 93 Atm -CO2: 0.96 -N2: 0.035 Earth: 1 atmosphere -N2: 0.78 -O2: 0.21 -Ar: 0.009 -H2O: 0.005 -CO2: 0.00039 Mars: 0.0056 atmosphere -CO2: 0.95 -N2: 0.027 -Ar: 0.016 Titan: 1.5 atmospheres -N2: 0.95 -CH4: 0.047 1 Atmosphere = 1013 mb | Terrestrial Planets & Titan: Major Atmospheric Gases and Atmospheric Pressure |
| -H2O: 79.31% -CO2: 11.61% -SO2: 6.48% -H2: 0.58% -CO: 0.37% -S2: 0.24% | Chemical Compositions of Volcanic Emissions (Hawaii) |
| -very thin atmosphere, mostly CO2 -mean atmospheric surface pressure -about 6mb = 0.6% of Earth’s atmosphere -argon 40 present, which is a radioactive decay component of potassium 40 -oxygen comes from breakdown of other compounds, not photosynthesis | The Chemical Composition of the Atmosphere of Mars |
| -CO2 (atmosphere) dissolves in sea -water -> CO2 + H2O -> H2CO3, carbonic acid -HCO3- -> H+ + CO3^2- (carbonate ion) Ca++ + CO32- CaCO3 (calcium carbonate which precipitates out as a solid on ocean floor) -H2CO3 -> HCO3- -HCO3- is the bicarbonate | Carbonate Chemistry in Sea Water |
| -N2 + hv -> N + N -O2 + hv -> O + O -CO2 + hv -> CO + O -H2) + hv -> H2 + O (Net reaction) -h is Planck’s constant and v is the frequency of radiation | Photodissociation |
| Banded iron formations (BIF) -found in ocean sediments. Red bands are high in Fe2O3 and Fe3O4 forms when reduced iron reacts with O2 -3.2-2 Ga -Photosynthesis -> O2 in the oceans that combined with the Fe producing iron oxides sinking down to ocean flo | evidence for O2 production |
| The ability of cyanobacteria to perform oxygenic photosynthesis is thought to have converted the early Earth atmosphere into an oxidizing one, which dramatically changed the life forms on Earth and provoked an explosion of biodiversity ~ 2.2 to 2.4 Ga | Oxygen in earths atmosphere |
| The structures consist of repeated thin layers of iron oxides, either magnetite or hematite, alternating with bands of iron-poor shale and chert. -primarily found in very old sedimentary rocks, ranging from over 3 to 1.8 billion years in age | Banded Iron Formations |
| Banded iron layers were formed in sea water as the result of free oxygen released by photosynthetic cyanobacteria combining with dissolved iron in the oceans to form insoluble iron oxides, which precipitated out, forming a thin layer on the seafloor | BIFs |
| -In the present atmosphere, the ozone column density is about 1 x 1019 ozone molecules per cm2 -This occurred when atmospheric oxygen levels were 10% of the present atmospheric level, 550 M years ago, at the beginning of the Cambrian period | Minimum atmospheric ozone column density |
| H, N, O (escape). Water ice sublimation, Ozone surface deposition, H2O2 surface deposition. | Near-Surface Atmospheric Chemistry of Mars |
| -CO2 + hv -> CO + O -all the CO2 in the atmosphere of Mars would be destroyed in only 3,000 years -but CO + O -> CO2 via reactions with atmospheric H and OH, both photodisassociation products of H2O on mars | The Photodissociation of CO2 on Mars |
| fossilized bacterial mats. Many fossils of prokaryotes are found in layers that make up the prokaryotic mats. Good ones in Australia. | stromatolites |
| photosynthetic prokaryotes that are still present today. | cyanobacteria |
| theory that prok entered another prok to make a euk | Endosymbiosis |
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