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AP Bio Midterm
Chapters 1, 51-56, 22-26, 2-8
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| evolution | process of changes that has transformed life on earth from its earliest beginnings to the diversity of organisms living today. explains the diversity and the suitability of organisms in their environment |
| levels of biological organization. | 10. molecules. 9. organelles. 8 cells. 7 tissues. 6. organs and organ systems. 5. organisms. 4. populations. 3. communities/ 2. ecosystems. 1. biosphere |
| do nutrients recycle themselves throughout an ecosystem or do they have a one way flow | a major process of ecosystems if the cycling of chemical nutrients and minerals |
| does energy recycle itself throughout an ecosystems or does it have a one way flow | a major process of ecosystems is the one way flow of energy as energy is transformed from sunlight to producers into chemical energy to consumers |
| three domains of life | bacteria and archaea and eukarya |
| what kind organisms are in the bacteria and archaea domains | prokaryotic |
| what descent with modifications | a phrase used by darwin to explain the unity and diversity of life |
| individuals in a population vary in their traits, many of which seem to be heritable. true or false? | true |
| a population can produce far more offspring that can survive to produce offspring of their own. true or false? | true |
| with more individuals than the environment can support, competition will not happen. true or false? | false. with more individuals than the environment can support, competition is actually inevitable |
| inquiry | search for info and explanation often focusing on specific questions |
| data | items of information |
| inductive reasoning | deriving generalizations from a large number of specific observations. ex: the sun always rises in the east |
| deductive reasoning | general to specific conclusions. ex: if all organisms are made up of cells than humans must be made up of cells |
| what two conditions must a hypothesis meet in order to be a hypothesis | it must testable and falsifiable--there must be some experiment that proves the hypothesis to be wrong. (the sun always rises in the east is an observation/fact, not a hypothesis, because you couldnt conduct an experiment to prove the observation wrong) |
| what makes a theory different than a hypothesis | it is much broader in scope than a hypothesis, it is often general enough to spin off many new, specific hypotheses that can be tested, and it is generally supported by a much greater body of evidence. |
| what are the characteristics of life | reproduction, cells, energy (need it, convert it, use it), grows and develops, dna, interacts with environment, evolves as a whole, homeostasis maintained dynamically |
| poorly adapted individuals never reproduce. heritable variations are among individuals. too many offspring creates competition. individuals best fit for environment will have more offspring. population can adapt to environment. which statement is false? | poorly adapted individuals can never reproduce is false. poorly adapted individual can produce offspring, they probably just wont produce as much as those best fitted for the environment |
| which best demonstrates the unity of all organisms: matching DNA nucleotide sequence. descent with modification. structure and function of DNA. natural selection. emergent properties | structure and function of the DNA |
| behavior | an action carried out by muscles or glands under control of the nervous system in response to a stimulus |
| proximate causation | how a behavior happens or is modified |
| ultimate causation | why a behavior happens in relation to evolution and natural selection |
| fixed action pattern | a sequence of unlearned acts that is essentially unchangeable and once initiated usually carried out to completion |
| sign stimulus | a trigger or an external cue that initiates a behavior |
| the male stickleback fish attacks anything that has a red underbelly. this action is a type of | fixed action patter |
| kinesis | a change in activity or turning rate in response to a stimulus. |
| a sow bugs increases activity in dry areas and decreases activity in wet areas. reacting to variations in humidity. this is orientated movement is an example of | kinesis |
| taxis | oriented movement toward (positive) or away from (negative) stimulus |
| trout face the opposite direction a current is going to keep from getting swept away and to capture food. this oriented movement is called | taxis |
| migration | regular long distance change in location |
| how do animals find their way in migration | sun, circadian clocks, earth's magnetic fields |
| signal | stimulus transmitted from one animal to another |
| communication | transmission and reception of signals |
| what are the different types of communications | visual, chemical (odors), tactile (touch), and auditory |
| how does a bee tell other bees about a food source from the hive | visual communication through a dance |
| pheromones | odors that emit chemical substances |
| when minnows are usually uniformly dispersed and one gets hurt, that minnow releases a chemical to alert the other minnows that a predator is nearby and so minnows congregate in a corner and limit their movements. that chemical is called a | phermone |
| innate behavior | behavior that is developmentally fixed |
| fixed action patterns, taxis/kinesis, and pheromone signaling are what type of behavior | innate |
| learned behaviors | behaviors acquired through experience |
| habituation | loss of responsiveness to a stimuli. helps animal's nervous system to focus on stimuli that are important |
| imprinting | both learned and innate. formation at a specific stage in life of a long lasting behavioral response to particular individual |
| sensitive period | a critical period in which a limited developmental phase when certain behaviors can be learned |
| when young grelag geese considered konrad lorenz to be their mother as soon as they were born, what had they done to lorenz | they had imprinted on him |
| spatial learning | establishment of a memory that reflects the environment's spatial patterns |
| when a female digger wasp goes hunting for food, she buries her nest with sand and uses landmarks to find her nest every single time she returns. what is she using | spatial learning |
| when clark's nutcrackers identify that their food supply is hidden halfway between certain landmarks they are utilizing a | cognitive map. a representation in the nervous system of the spatial relationships between objects |
| associative learning | when one environmental feature is associated with a response |
| what are the two types of associative learning | classical and operant conditioning |
| classical conditiong | when an arbitrary stimulus becomes associated with a particular outcome |
| after ringing a bell and giving a dog afterwards multiple times, the dog will salivate when hearing the bell in anticipation for food. this is called | classical conditioning |
| operant conditioning | trial and error learning |
| when a mouse bites into a caterpillar of a monarch and finds it distasteful, it then associates caterpillars of the color to be distasteful and stays away from them. this is called | operant conditioning |
| cross fostering study | when young of one species are raised by another species. to study the effects the environment has on individual behaviors |
| foraging | food obtaining behavior |
| what do biologists mean when they study foraging behavior with a cost-benefit analysis | they study the compromise of the benefits of nutrition and the costs of obtaining food. costs might include energy expenditure and possibility of being eaten by predators |
| optimal foraging model | natural selection favors a foraging behavior that minimizes costs and maxmimizes benefits |
| promiscuous | when both parents have no strong pair bond or lasting relationship |
| monogamous | one male mating with a female and staying together |
| polygamous | an individual of one sex mating with several of the other |
| polygyny | when males mate with several females |
| polyandry | when females mate with several males |
| what factors influence mating relationships | needs of young and certainty of paternity |
| agonistic behaviors | an often ritualized contest that determines which competitor gains access to a resource such as food or mates |
| altruism | animals that behave in a way that reduces their own individual fitness but increases the fitness of other individuals |
| a squirrel that sounds an alarm to other squirrels about a nearby predator, saves the population but puts itself at risk. this behavior is known as | altruistic behavior |
| inclusive fitness | total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing own offspring and providing aid that enables other close relatives who share many of those genes |
| kin selection | natural selection that favors altruistic behavior by enhancing reproductive success of relatives |
| in lion king 1 1/2. the meerkats had a guard which would sound an alarm for the hyenas, thereby saving its relatives but putting itself at risk. this behavior is due to | kin selection |
| reciprocal altruism | tit for tat strategy that explains the altruistic behavior between species that are not related. |
| true or false. innate behaviors tend to vary considerably among members of a population | false |
| true or false. innate behaviors are expressed in most individuals in a population across a wide range of environmental conditions | true |
| what are the levels of ecology | organism, population, community, ecosystem, landscape, and global |
| biotic vs. abiotic factors | living (organisms and their relationships) vs non living factors (rain, sun, minerals) |
| dispersal | movement of individuals away from their area of origin or from centers of high population density |
| natural range expansions | when organisms, on their own, reach an area where they did not exist previously. for example cattle egrets that were only found in africa 200 years ago are now found in a lot of south american and north american countries |
| biotic factors | organisms relationships with predation, parsitism, or competition. survival and reproduction of a species may also be dependent on the presences of another species such as pollinators for many followers |
| abiotic factors | temperature (has effect on biological processes like metabolism), water (availability), salinity (salt balance in water, affects osmosis), sunlight (energy), rocks and soil (minerals needed for chemical energy). |
| climate | composed of 4 abiotic factors: sunlight, temperature, water, and wind. long term prevailing weather conditions in a particular area. |
| macroclimate vs. microclimate | climates in terms of glocal, regional, and local levesl vs climates in very fine patterns like those encountered in a community underneath a lo |
| how do oceans and mountains affect climate | oceans currenty heat or cool overlying air masses which may then pass across land. water has high specific heat and so oceans and large lakes moderate climate of nearby land. mountains affect amount of sunlight, local temperature and rainfall an area gets |
| biomes | major terrestrial or aquatic life zones, characterized by vegetation type in terrestrial biomes or the physical environment in aquatic biomes |
| many aquatic biomes are stratified (layered) physically and chemically. what are these layers ( | photic zone (sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis). aphotic zone (little light penetration). benthic zone (bottom zone made up of sand and organic and inorganic compounds). beneath the benthic zone is the abyssal zone |
| what are organisms in the benthic zone called | benthos |
| what do benthos typically feed off of | detritus. dead organic matter |
| how is turnover important for organisms in all levels within a lake | somke lakes undergo semiannual mixing of their water as a result of changing temp. it brings oxygenated water from lakes surface to the bottom and nutrient rich water form bottom to the surface |
| disturbance | an event such as storm, fire, or human activity that changes a community, removing organisms from it and altering resources available |
| biomes generally grade into each other without sharp boundaries. the area of intergradation is called an | ecotone |
| are biomes stable or dynamic | dynamic |
| population | group of individual of a single species living in the same general area. rely on the same resources, influenced by similar environmental factors, likely to interact and breed with one another |
| evolution acts on ________ while natural selection acts on _________ (population, individual) | evolution acts on populations while natural selection acts on individuals |
| density | number of individuals per unit area or volume |
| dispersion | the pattern of spacing among the individuals within the boundaries |
| for populations that are constantly moving, ecologists often capture a random sample of a population, mark and release it back into the population. they capture another random sample and calculate the population density. what method is this | mark recapture method |
| immigration vs emigration | organisms entering a population vs. organisms leaving a population |
| how is density a dynamic property | due to immigration and emigration, birth and death rates, and disturbances |
| what are the patterns of dispersion | clumped, uniform, random |
| why do most plants and some animals disperse in clumped forms | due to soil conditions, mineral availability for plants. for animals it may be to increase the chances of mating |
| why do some organisms have uniformed dispersion | it can be due to territoriality, defense of bounded physical space against encroachment by other individuals. |
| why does random dispersion occur in organisms | its when position of each individual is indpendent of other individual. occurs in the absence of strong attractions or repulsions amongst individuals in a population |
| demography | study of vital statistics of populations and how they change over time |
| life tables | age specific summaries of the survival patterns of population. (survivorship curves in table form) |
| survivorship curves | graphic method of representing the data in a life table. |
| a human being provides what kind of survivorship curve | type I, it is flat at the start, reflecting low death rates in early and middle life, then drops steeply as age increases. |
| why do organisms like human beings exhibit a type I curve | organisms like humans provide care for their offspring but produce very few offspring. |
| what kind of survivorship curve does an oyster show | type III. where there is high death rate among offsprings but as the organism ages they survive for a long time |
| why do organisms like oysters exhibit a type III curve | because these type of organisms tend to make many offspring but dont provide any care of their offspring and so very few survive |
| what kind survivorship curve do ground squirrels exhibit | a type II. where there is a constant death rate throughout their lifespan. |
| life history | 3 basic variables: age of first reproduction, how often the organism reproduces, and how many offpsrings are produced with each episode |
| big bang reproduction or semelparity | when an organism reproduces only once and produces thousands of eggs or seeds |
| iteroparity | repeated reproduction |
| what factors contribute to an organism reproducing repeatedly or only at one time | survival rate of the offspring and likelihood that the adult will survive to reproduce again |
| essentially what is there in the reproduction and the survival of the species and the survival and the number of offsprings? | trade offs |
| under ideal conditions a population will have what type of growth | exponential |
| what kind of species have an exponential population growth | invasive species |
| carrying capacity | maximum population size that a particular environment can sustain |
| what are some limiting factors to a population size | energy, shelter, refuge from predators, nutrient availability, water, and suitable nesting sites |
| in populations in nature, what kind of growth do population exhibit | logistic (logarithmic). eventually the rate of increase approaches zero as the carrying capacity is reached |
| populations that are density dependent because their populations are high in density and competition is high, the organisms are said to be | k-selected |
| populations that are density independent and are said to be maximize the rate of increase because the population is well below the carrying capacity, organisms are said to be | r-selected |
| what are density independent factors | birth or dearth rates that does not change with population density. the weather, storms, natural disasters, these factors dont change due to population density |
| what are density dependent factors | factors that increase death rate that rise sas population density rises. |
| what are density dependent regulations | competition for resources, territoriality, disease, predation, toxic wastes, intrinsic (physiological) factors |
| population dynamics | complex interactions between biotic and abiotic factors that cause variations in the size of population |
| hare and lynx populations have a regular | boom and bust population cycle. as the population of one is dependent on the population of the other |
| metapopulation | local populations that are linked. promotes genetic diversity |
| a population's carrying capacity: a. can be accurately calculated using logistic growth model. b. remains constant. c. increases as growth rate decreases. d. may change when environmental conditions change. e. can never be exceeded | d. may change as environmental conditions change |
| which pair of terms most accurately describes life history traits for a stable population of wolves: a. semlparous, r selected. b. semelparous, k selected. c. iteroparous, r selected. d. iteroparous, k selected. | d iteroparous, k selected |
| scientific study of the population cycles of the snowshoe hare and its predator, the lynx, has revealed that | multiple biotic and abiotic factors contribute to the cycling of the hare and lynx populations |
| during exponential growth, a population always: a. grows by thousands of individuals. b. grows at maxmimum per capita rate. c. quickly reaches its carrying capacity. d. cycles through time. e. loses some individuals to emigration | b. grows at its maximum per capita rate |
| a group of populations of different species living close enough to interact is called | community |
| competition, predation, herbivory, and symbiosis are all part of | interspecific interactions. interactions with individuals of other species in the community |
| what type of interation is -/- | interspecific competition. when individuals or different species compete for a resource that limits their growth and survival |
| a lion and tiger cannot live in the same habitat because they both need the same resources. so living in the same habitat will eventually kill one of them. so lions and tigers cannot live together due to | competitive exclusion. states that two species that have the same ecological niche cannot occupy the same habitat. |
| ecological niche | sum o the use of the biotic and abiotic resources in its environment. an organims's function |
| when species have one or more significant differences leading to modified niches, these species can coexist in the same community with | resource partitioning. example the lizards in the trees |
| fundamental vs. realized niche | a species potential niche vs. its portion of its fundamental niche that it actually occupies. |
| species of the galapagos finches that are geographically separate have similar beaks and eat similar seeds, but species of the finches that geographically overlapping, have distinct beaks thereby making it that they eat different kinds of seeds because of | character displacement |
| predation | +/- relationship. also includes herbivory. where one organims kills another and eats it. |
| cryptic coloration | camoufalge, makes prey difficult to spot |
| bright warning colors are | aposematic coloration |
| when the larva of the hawkmoth snake puffs up its head and thorax when disturbed, it looks like a small poisonous snake. this is called | batesian mimicry |
| when the cuckoo bee and the yellow jacket resemble each other. they are both harmful but as time goes on predators learn to avoid both. this is called | mullerian mimicry |
| what is a plant's protection against herbivores | chemical toxins and structures such as spines and thorns |
| when a wasp lays its eggs inside an organism and the larva feed of that organism until it dies. its calleed | parasitism (+/-). the larva called parasites, and the organisms which the larva are feeding off is called the hsot. |
| endoparasites | live within the body, tapeworms |
| ectoparasites | feed on external surface, ticks |
| a bee and flower have what type of relationship | mutualism (+/+) |
| a bird's nest in a tree is what type of relationship | commensalism (+/0) |
| when a tree limb falls off and crushes a growing plant what type of relationship is that | ammensalism (-/0) |
| species richness | number of different species in the community |
| relative abundance | the proportion each species represents of all individuals in the community |
| trophic structures | feeding relationships of a community, transfer of food energy up the trophic levels. |
| food chain | autotrphs (primary producers), to herbivores (primary consumers), to carnivores (secondary, tertiary, quarternary consumers) |
| food chains that are linked | food webs |
| the total mass of all individuals in a population | biomass |
| dynamic stability hypothesis | the longer the food chain the more unstable it is. population fluctuation at the bottom levels can greatly affect the predators on the top levels. the longer the food chain thee slower top predators are able to adapt to environmental setbacks |
| the most abundant or that collectively have the highest biomass | dominant species. exert powerful control over the occurrence and distribution of the other species |
| invasive species | organisms that take hold of their environments outside their native range. no predators, no diseases, no competition can limit population size |
| keystone species | not the most abundant but exert strong control on community structure by their pivotal ecological roles or niches |
| a beaver that builds dams can transform landscapes. its a a | foundation species |
| facilitators | alter the structure and dynamics of the environment. have positive effects on survival and reproduction of other species |
| the presence of absence of mineral affects plants, which affects herbivores, which affects carnivores. which organization model is | bottom up model |
| predators limit herbivores which limit plants which limit nutrients. such organization is | top down model |
| nonequilibrium model | describes most communities as constantly changing after being affected by distrubances |
| intermediate disturbance hypothesis | moderate levels of disturbances can create conditions that foster greater species diversity than low or high levels of disturbance |
| when disturbed areas are colonized by a variety of species, which are gradually replaced by other species, which are in turn replaced... | ecological succession |
| a lifeless area where soil has not yet formed and the only things present are bacteria and protists and prokaryotes | primary succession |
| when bacteria and prokaryotes break down minerals into usable soil | secondary successino |
| there are three key processes in sucession | facilitation-species make the soil usable. inhibition- colonization of later species happens in spite of instead of because of earlier species that inhibited the area. toleration-later species tolerate the conditions made by earlier species |
| island equilibrium model | immigration and extinction rates are plotted as function of number of species on island. equilibirum will eventually be reached where rate of species immigration = rate of species extinction. # is correlated with size of island and distance from mainland |
| pathogens | diseases and germs |
| keyston predators can maintain species diversity in a community if they: a. competitively exclude other predators b. prey on the dominant species c. allow immigration d. reduce amount of disruptions. e. prey on least abundanct species | b. prey on community's dominant species |
| ecosystem | sum of all organisms living within its boundaries and all the abiotic factors with which they interact |
| conservation of energy | energy cannot be created or destroyed. energy conversions are not 100% effecient, some is lost to heat, increasing entropy of universe |
| law of conservation of mass | matter cannot be created or destroyed only transformed. mass is conserved |
| detritivores | decomposers |
| primary producers | create own food. plants and autotrophs. set energy budget for ecosystem |
| primary consumers | herbivores that eat plants |
| secondary consumers | carnivores that eat herbivores |
| tertiary consumers | carnivores that eat carnivores |
| detritivores | decomposers that feed on dead organic matter |
| primary production | amount of light energy converted to chemical energy by autotrophs during given time period |
| gross primary production | amount of light energy that is converted to chemical energy by photosynthesis per unit of time |
| net primary production | GPP minus the energy used for cellular respiration. it is the amount avilable for the rest of the ecosystem |
| phosphorus is a type of ________ because it is the element that must be added for production to increase. it limits primary production | limiting nutrient |
| secondary production | amount of chemical energy in consumers' food that is converted to their own new biomass during a given time period. transfer of organic matter from primary producers to primary consumers |
| production efficiency | is the percentage of energy stored in assimilated food that is not used for respiration |
| trophic efficiency | percentage of production transferred from one trophic level to the next. |
| turnover time | the rate at which an organism is depleted and replaced |
| what are some important nutrient cycles | water, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus |
| global climate change is happening due to | increasing greenhouse gases, the greenhouse effect, the depletion of the atmospheric ozone, |
| water moves in glocal cycles driven by | solar energy |
| carbon cycle primarily reflects the reciprocal processes of | photosynthesis and cellular respiration |
| nitrogen enters ecosystems through | atmospheric deposition and nitrogen fixation by prokaryotes. however local cycles between organisms and soil or water |
| organic materials available as nutrients | living organisms, detritus |
| organic materials unavailable as nutrients | coal, oil, peat |
| inorganic materials unavailable as nutrients | minerals in rocks |
| inorganic materials available as nutrients | atmosphere, soil, water |
| organic materials available as nutrients is converted to organic materials unavailable as nutrients through | fossilization |
| inorganic materials unavailable as nutrients is converted to inorganic materials available as nutrients through | weathering and erosion |
| inorganic materials available as nutrients to organic materials available as nutrients and vice versa through | assimilation, photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, excretion |
| organic materials unavailable as nutrients is converted to inorganic materials available as nutrients through | burning of fossil fuels |
| three levels of biodiversity | genetic diversity (source of variation that enable populations to adapt to environmental changes) to species diversity (important in maintaining structure of communities and food webs)to ecosystem diversity (provide life sustaining services-nutrients) |
| three major threats to biodiversity | habitat loss, introduced species, overexploitation |
| small population approach | when a population drops below a minimum viable population size, its loss of genetic variation due to nonrandom mating and genetic drift can trap it in an extinction vortex |
| decline population approach | focuses on the environmental factors that cause decline, regardless of absolute population size, follows step by step proactive conservation strategy |
| weighing conflicting demands | conserving species often requires resolving and conflicts between the habitat needs of endangered species and human demands |
| bioremediation | restoration ecologists harness organisms to detoxify polluted ecosystems |
| biological augmentation | ecologists also use organisms to add essential materials to ecosystems |
| sustainable biosphere initiative | goal is to acquire the ecological info needed for the development, management, and conservation of earth's resources |
| exploring restoration | newness and complexity of restoration ecology requires scientists to consider alternative solutions and adjust approaches based on experience |
| sustainable development | development that meets the needs of people today without limiting the ability of future generations to meet their needs |
| atomic number | number of protons |
| mass number | number of protons and neutrons |
| atomic mass | mass of protons and neutrons |
| isotopes | atoms of the same element that have different number of neutrons |
| stable isotopes | nuclei do not have tendency to lose particles |
| radioactive isotopes | nucleus decays spontaneously giving off particles and energy. decays to lose protons and therefore forms a differnt atom |
| electron shells | spaces where electrons are found.shells closest to nucleus have lowest energy shells farthest from nucleus have highest energy. electron absorbs energy it moves to farther shell electron loses energy moves to closest shell |
| valence shells | outermost electron shells. determines chemical behavior of atoms. atoms with completed shells will be unreactive. |
| what are the four elements that make up most matter | carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen |
| covalent bond | sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms. strong and stable |
| electronegativity | attraction of a particular kind of atom for the electron of a covalent bond. the more electronegative the stronger the pull on an electron |
| nonpolar covalent bonds | when two atoms of the same element have the same electronegativity and so they share the electrons equally |
| polar covalent bonds | one atom bonded to a more electronegative atom, the electrons are not shared equally. bonds vary in polarity depending on relative electronegativity of two atoms |
| ionic bonds | an atom completely strips another atom's electron, forming ions. the ion with the electron becomes negative (anion) and the ion without the electron becomes positive (cation), and because of opposite charges the ions attract together forming a bond |
| compounds formed by ionic bonds are called | ionic compounds or salts |
| hydrogen bond | weak. hydrogen atom covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is also attracted to another electronegative atom. (often oxygen or nitrogen) |
| molecular shape is important because | it determines how a molecule will recognize and respond to another molecule thereby doing its function |
| water is what type of molecule | polar |
| polar molecule | two ends of a molecule have opposite charges. the oxygen negative and the hydrogen positive of water and so they are attracted towards each other |
| the hydrogen bonds of water | constantly break and reform in liquid form |
| cohesion | hydrogen bonds hold the substance (water) together |
| how is cohesion used in organisms | contributes to the transport of water and dissolved nutrients against gravity in plants. |
| adhesion | the clinging of one substance to another (water) |
| how is adhesion used in organisms | adhesion of water to cell walls by hydrogen bonds to help counter the downward pull of gravity |
| surface tension | measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid. water had greater surface tension than other liquids |
| water has high specific heat | ability of water to stabilize temperature. it is the amount of heat that is absorbed or lost for 1 gram of that substance to change its temperature by 1 degrees C |
| water has high heat of vaporization | quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted from liquid to gas. regulates earth's climate |
| water's density | ice is less dense than water itself. this provides insulation in frozen lakes and ponds |
| water is what in an aqueous solution | a solvent. water is a very versatile solvent. some things can dissolve in it while others wont. |
| hydrophilic | substance that has affinity for water. the substance doesn't have to dissolve completely. substances suspended in water are just as hydrophilic (cotton towels can absorb water but wont dissolve in water) |
| hydrophobic | repel water and dont dissolve in water. for example oil |
| hydrogen ion | a single proton (hydrogen) that leaves its electron behind to another molecule. |
| hydroxide ion | a water molecule that has a lost a proton ( a hydrogen ion that has left behind its electron) (OH-) |
| hydronium ion | the free proton (hydrogen ion) attaches to another water molecule (an oxygen with 3 hydrogens now) |
| acid | substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution. for example when hydrochloric acid is added to water the hydrogen ions dissociate from chloride ions. the release of hydrogen ions make solution acidic |
| basic | a substance that reduces the hydrogen ions in a solution. the taking in or bonding of hydrogen ions to a compound decrease the number of hydrogen ions in the solution thereby making it basic |
| whats another way to make a solution basic besides the taking in of a hydrogen ion | indirectly reduce hydrogen ions by forming hydroxide ions, which combines water and the hydrogen bonds. such as sodium hydroxide. |
| pH | negative log (base 10) of the hydrogen ion concentration. pH = -log[H+] |
| buffers | minimuze changes in concentration of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions in solutions by either accepting hydrogen ions in solutions or releasing them depending on the solution |
| whats the backbone of life | carbon |
| organic chem | study of carbon compounds |
| methane | when a carbon atom has four single bonds to other bonds. the molecule is tetrahedral (CH4) |
| ethane | a molecule may have more than one tetrahedral group of single bonded atoms. C2H6 |
| ethene | when two carbon atoms are joined by a double bond all atoms attached to those carbons are in the same place; the molecule is flat. C2H4 |
| what do carbon skeletons vary in | length. double blonds (where the double bonds are). branching (if it branches or doesnt). and rings |
| hydrocarbons | molecules consisting of only carbons and hydrogens |
| characteristics of hydrocarbons | covalent stable bonds. non polar. not soluble in water-hydrophobic. very little attraction between molecules |
| isomers | variation in architecture of organic molecules |
| structural isomers | differ in covalent arrangements of their atoms. have the same number of atoms of each element but they are arranged differently |
| geometric isomers | double bond causes difference in spatial relationships of end atoms. the covalent bonds and partners are the same, but where they are placed around the doublee bonded main atoms is different |
| enantiomers | mirror images of each other. differ in spatial arrangement around an asymmetric carbon. L and D isomers |
| functional groups | chemical groups that affect molecular function by being directly involved in chemical reactions |
| hydroxyl group | (-OH)a hydrogen atom bonded to an oxygen atom, which is bonded to a carbon skeleton of organic molecule. not a hydroxide ion. ALCOHOLS. example: ethanol. |
| properties of hydroxyl groups | polar because electrons hang more toward oxygen atom. can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules, helping dissolve organic compounds like sugar. neutral in pH.. hydrophilic |
| carbonyl group | consists of carbon atoms joined to an oxygen atom by a double bond. ketones: if carbonyl is within carbon skeleton. aldehydes: if carbonyl group at the end of carbon skeleton. example: acetone (ketone) and propanal (aldehyde) |
| properties of carbonyl groups | may have structural isomers. polar and hydrophilic |
| carboxyl group | oxygen atom is double bonded to a carbon adom that is bonded to an -OH group. oorganic acids. example: acetic acids. |
| properties of carboxyl groups | acidic (source of hydrogen ions). bond between oxygen and oxygen makes it acidic and polar. hydrophilic |
| amino groups | nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms (-NH2). amines. example: glycine. |
| properties of amino groups | basic. can pick up hydrogen ions from surrounding solutions. polar and hydrophilic |
| sulfhydryl | sulfur atom bonded to hydrogen atom. thiols. exmaple: cysteine. |
| properties of sulfhydryl | two of these groups can react forming covalent bonds for cross-linking to stabilize proteins. hydrophilic and polar |
| phosphate groups | phosphorus atom bonded to 4 oxygen atoms, one oxygen is bonded to carbon skeleton. two oxygens carry negative charges. organic phosphates. example: glycerol phosphate. |
| properties of phosphate groups | contributes to negative charge of molecule. is acidic, polar, and hydrophilic. tranfers energy between organic molecules |
| methyl | carbon bonded to three hydrogen atoms. methylated compounds. example: 5 methyl cytidine. |
| properties of methyl | affects genes. polar, charged, hydrogphilic, acidic |
| macromolecules | carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids |
| polymer | long moelcule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds |
| monomers | smaller molecules that are the building blocks of polymers |
| dehydration synthesis | a reaction that connects monomers by forming a covalent bond through the loss of a water molecule. one monomer provides a hydroxyl group (-OH) and the other provides a hydrogen. |
| enzymes | dehydration process is facilitated by these specialized macromolecules that speed up chemical reactions |
| hydrolysis | polymers are disassembled to monomers by adding water to break them down. through the addition of a water molecule a hydrogen and a hydroxyl group is added to the polymer breaking it down into monomers |
| carbohydrates | are sugars and polymers of sugars. |
| monomer of a carb | monosaccharides. example: glucose |
| 2 monomer of carbs | disaccharides. example: sucrose |
| polymers of a carbs | polysaccharides. example: starch |
| basic structure of sugars | a carbonyl group and multiple hydroxyl groups. if carbonyle is ketone the sugar is ketose, if carbonyle is aldehyde then sugar is aldose. sugars are in RING STRUCTURES |
| function for monosaccharides | nutrients, energy, used for synthesis for other molecules |
| glcosidic linkage | a covalent bond formed between to monosaccharides by dehydration synthesis |
| polysaccharides | macromolecules, polymers with many monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkage. |
| function of polysaccharides | storage material, building material, |
| starch | used by plants for storage of energy and nutrients |
| glycogen | polymer of glucose that is used by human and animals for storage of nutrients and energy |
| cellulose | only usable by plants. a polysaccharide that is major componenet for tough walls for structure |
| chitin | arthropods to build exoskeletons. structure |
| lipids | are not considered macromolecules and dont have specific polymers and monomers, but are grouoped together because they mix poorly, if at all, with water. hydrophobic |
| what are the smaller molecules of lipids called | fats |
| what are fats made of | glycerol and fatty acids and hydrocarbon chains |
| glycerol | alcohol with three carbon each with hydroxly group |
| fatty acid | long carbon skeleton. carbon at one end of fatty acid is part of carboxyl group (gives it its acidic properties). |
| why do fats separate from water | the water molecules hydrogen bond to one another and exclude the fats. the nonpolar hydrocarbon bondds in hydrocarbon chain give them their hydrophobic characteristic |
| what joins fatty acid molecules together | ester linkages |
| tricylglycerol | three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule |
| saturated fatty acid | no double bonds between carbon atoms composing the hydrocarbon chain, so as many hydrogens are bonded to carbon skeleton |
| unsatruated fatty acid | has one or more double bonds by the removal oof a hydrogen atom from the skeleton. |
| phospholipids | are important for cell membrane. hydrocarbon tails are hydrophobic and excluded from water, but the phosphate group on the hydrophilic heads make an affinity for water. form a bilayer for cell membrain |
| steriods | lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings. |
| functions of proteins | catalysts and enzymes, transportation, storage of amino acids, movement, protection |
| polymers of protein | polypeptide |
| protein | consists of one or more polypepetides, each folded and coiled into specific three dimensional structure |
| monomer of protein | amino acid |
| amino acids | organic molecules possessing both carboxyl and amino groups |
| general form of amino group | at the center is assymetric carbon atom. then there is an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and variable group called R (the side chain) |
| how are polypeptides formed | when two amino acids are positions so that the amino group of one is adjacent to the other's carboxyl group, dehydration reaction happens, & a peptide bond is formed. so at one end is c-terminus (carboxyl group)& the other end is n-terminus (amino group) |
| primary structure of a protein | unique sequence of amino acids. it is determined by inherited genetic information |
| secondary structure | segments of polypeptide chains repeatedly coiled or folded. result of hydrogen bonds between the repeating constituents of the polypeptide backbone |
| alpha helix | a delicate coild held together by hydrogen bonding between every fourth amino acid. |
| beta pleated sheet | two or more regions of the polypeptide chain lying side by side are connected by hydrogen bonds between part of the two parallel polypeptide backbones. |
| tertiary structure of proteins | overall shape of polypeptide resulting form interactions between the side chains (R groups) of various amino acids. |
| hydrophobic interaction of tertiary structures | as polypeptide folds into its functional shape, amino acids with hydrophobic side chains usually end up in clusters at the core of the protein, out of water. |
| disulfide bridges | two amino acids with sulfyhydryl groups on their side chains are brought close together by the folding of the protein. the sulfur of one group bonds to the sulfur of the other group, and bride rivets part of protein together |
| quaternary structure of protein | overall protein structure that results from aggregation of two or more polypeptide chains |
| deenaturations | proteins unravel and lose native shape |
| nucleic acids | unit of inhertance known as genes |
| monomer of nucleic acid | nucleotide |
| polymer of nucleic acid | DNA and RNA (polynucleotides) |
| DNA and RNA | enable living organisms to reproduce their complex components from one generation to the next |
| nucleotides are made of | nitrogenous base, a five carbon sugar, and a phosphate group |
| pyrimidine | 6 membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms. cytosine, thymine, and uracil |
| purines | 6 membered ring fused to a five membered ring. adenine, guanine |
| ribose | sugars in nucleotides of RNA |
| deoxyribose | sugars in nucleotides of DNA |
| phosphodiester bond | new base added to sugar of previous base. grow in one direction. n base hangs off at the end |
| why does double helix happen | hydrogen bonds between the nitrogen bases |
| test for lipid | paper test. clear and wet still |
| test for sugar | benedict and heat. turns orangey. |
| test for starch | iodine. turns black |
| test for protein | biuret solution. turns purple. |
| indicators | color change indicates a chemical reaction. detect a presence of a macromolecule. |
| descent with modification | phrase used by darwin to explain evolution and how earth's many species are descendants from common ancestral species that are different frmo today's species. leads to diversity and unity of life |
| fossils | remains of traces of organisms from the past. most are found in sedimentary rock. new layers suppress old layers of fossils |
| what are the two principles of lamark's | use and disuse. inhertiance of acquired characteristics |
| lamark's principle of use and disuse | parts of the body that are used over and over, become larger and stronger while those that arent used deteriorate. example: giraffes stretched their necks for generations before they acquired long necks |
| lamark's principle of inheritance of acquired characteristics | organisms are able to pass on to their offspring their acquired traits |
| adaptations | characteristics of organisms that enhance their chances of survival and reproduction in specific environments |
| artificial selection | humans have modified other species over generations by selecting and breeding individuals with desired traits |
| over time, natrual selection can increase the match between an organism and its environment. true or false | true |
| if environment changes, or if individuals move to another environment, natural selection may result in adaptations to these environments, and may give rise to new species. true or false | true |
| homologous structures | structures in species (i.e. bones structures) that are similar among species because of common ancestory |
| vestigial structures | structures in organisms that have no use currently but are basically leftover structures from the organism's ancestor |
| analagous structures | structures that have similiar functions but different make up (i.e. bat's wings vs. bird wings). indicates no common ancestory |
| how can evolution be proved on a molecular level | common dna, rna, and protein sequences across species |
| convergent evolution | the evolution of similiar features in independent and separate lineages. |
| what is evidence for convergent evolution | analgous structures |
| gene pool | all the alleles of all the loci of all the individuals in a population |
| hardy weignberg equilibirum | conditions describing a non evolving population |
| what kind of a hypothesis is the hardy weinberg principle? what are you trying to prove? | it is a null hypothesis. in order to prove that evolution does happen you have prove the hypothesis wrong |
| hardy weingberg equation | p^2 + 2pq + q^2. p is dominant allele, and q is dominant allele. p^2 is homozygous dominant, q^2 is homozygous recessive, 2pq is heterozygous |
| conditions for hardy weinberg equilibrium | no mutation. no random mating. no natural selection. extremely large population. no gene flow |
| genetic drift | a process in which chance events happen and cause unpredicatable fluctuation of alleles from one generation to the next. |
| what are the two types of genetic drift thingies | founder's effect and bottleneck effect |
| founder's effect | when a group of individuals separate from a larger population and create their own species and have a gene pool not reflective of that of the original population |
| bottleneck effect | when a disaster or disturbance occurs and results in the loss of some alleles in the population making the new population no longer genetically representative of the original population |
| genetic drift is more common and significant in small populations than in large. true or false? | true |
| gene flow | transfer of alleles from one population to another, resulting from the movement of individuals or their gametes |
| relative fitness | contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation, relative to other individuals |
| a moth in a population may have more offpspring because its color conceals it from predators and therefore it lives and produces more compared to other moths. what is this? | relative fitness |
| directional selection | shifts overall population to favor variables at one extreme. white mice vs. gray mice vs. dark mice, the dark mice are favored |
| diruptional selection | where variables at two extremes are favored instead of intermediate traites. between white, gray, and dark mice. the white and dark mice are favored |
| stabilizing selection | where variables of an intermediate trait are favored over extreme variables. between babies that 4 pounds, 6 pounds, and 8 pounds. babies that are 6 pounds are healthy and survive better while keeping the mother alive as well |
| sexual selection | a natural selection where individuals with certain traits are more likely to have mates and therefore offspring |
| sexual dimorphism | marked differences of secondary sex characteristics between males and females. so males and females are distinguishable and can compete for mates based on traits |
| a male that is patrolls and defends his status among other males and prevents other males from mating with his females is an example of | intrasexual selection. individuals of one sex compete directly for mates of individuals of the other sex |
| female birds that chose their mates based on the fact on how showy or bright or colorful the a male bird is, is an example of what? | intersexual selection. mate choice. individuals of one sex are choosy about the mates they choose |
| why can natural selection not fashion perfect organisms | selection can act on only existing traits. evolution is restricted by historical constraints. adaptations are often compromises. chance, natural selection, and the environment interact |
| what are the agents of evolution | genetic drift, nonrandom mating, mutation, gene flow, natural selection |
| how old is the earth | 4.6 billion years |
| how did the synthesis of organic compounds first happen | 1. abiotic synthesis of organic compounds. 2. compounds forming macromolecules. 3. packaging of these macromolecules into protobionts |
| protbionts | collection of abiotic material surrounded by membrane or membrane like structures |
| coarcervates | a type of protbiont |
| primordial soup | a theory that states that the ocean mixed organic compounds up and lightening struck and created first organic compounds and such |
| mass extinctions | cretaceous (meteor that kiled dinosaurs). Triassic-Jurassic (lava eruption that killed species). Permian-Triassic (90 percent of species died). Devonian. Ordovician-Silurian |
| difference between phylogenetic trees and cladograms | phylogenetic trees group things based on kingdoms, order, class, genus, and species. cladograms show relationship between current species and their ancestors based on shared characteristics. |
| what are light microscopes used to see | from small eggs (like frog eggs) to the smallest bacteria. light microscopes can give you general view of cells |
| what are electron microscopes used to see | they can see from the general layout of the cell as a whole to specific organelles to specific small molecules in the cell |
| what are scanning electron microscopes used to see | used for detailed study of the surface of a specimen |
| what are transmission electron microscopes used to study | the internal ultrastructure of cells |
| what is common useful technique for taking cells apart to separate major organelles and other subcellular structures from one another | cell fractionation |
| what are the features that all cells have in common | plasma membrane, cytosol, chromosomes (DNA), and ribosomes |
| how is the location of DNA different from prokaryotic to eukaryotic cells | in eukaryotes the dna is in the nucleus which is bounded by a double membrane. in prokaryotes the dna is concentrated in a region that is not membrane enclosed called the nucleoid |
| what sets the size limits for cells | metabolism and the fact that a cell's volume grow proportionally more than its surface area. |
| what do plant cells have that nimal cells dont | chloroplast, central vacuole, and the cell wall |
| nuclear envelope | double membrane that separates nucleus from the cytosol |
| nuclear lamina | net like array of protein filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus by mechanically supporting the nuclear envelope |
| nucleoulus | densely strained granules and fibers adjoining part of the chromatin. ribosomal RNA is synthesized here |
| pore complex of the nucleus | regulates entry and exit of most proteins and rna and macromolecules |
| ribosomes | complexes made of ribosomal RNA and protein, are the cellular componenets that carry out protein synthesis. |
| endomembrane system | a special eukaryotic feature that has the rough and smooth er and the golgi and the plasma membrane work together for protein synthesis and their transport into and out of plamsma membranes and to organelles. |
| vesicles | sacs of membranes that transports things into and out of the cell and within the cell |
| ER | extensive network of folded membranes that is continuous with the nuclear envelope. there is the rough and smooth er |
| functions of the smooth er | metabolic processes and synthesis of lipids, and detoxification of drugs and poisons |
| glycoproteins | secretory proteins that are covalently bonded to carbs |
| golgi apparatus | after leaving the ER, transport vesicles end up in the golgi where they end up modified, packaged again, and sent off to either another part of the cell or are secreted out of the cell |
| lysosomes | membranous sac of hydolytic enzymes that are used to digest macromolecules. when the cell goes through phagocytosis, the food vacuoles obtained usually end up in lysosomes. only found in animal cells. recycle cell's organic material |
| contractile vacuole | pump excess water out of the cell, thereby maintaining suitable concentrations of ions and molecules inside the cell. often found in prokaryotes |
| central cavuole | often found in plant cells. important part of the cell. can old organic compounds or by-products of the cell or poisonous material within the plant cell that are harmful to other organisms |
| what is unique about mitochondria and chloroplasts | they contain their own DNA and often create their own proteins by the free ribosomes in the cytosol. they can grow and reproduce on their own within the cell |
| cristae | inner membrane is convuluted with infoldings. |
| mitochondrial matrix | enclosed by inner membrane of mitochondria. contains enzymes and mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes |
| chloroplasts are part of a family called | plastids. found in plant cells |
| thylakoid | flattened inter connected sacs |
| granum | stacks of the poker chips. stacks of the thylakoids |
| peroxisomes | similiar to mitochondria and chloroplast. oxidative organelle. containes enzymes that transfer hydrogen from substrates to oxygen and produces hydrogen peroxide. break down fatty acids into smaller molecules. used for detoxification of poisons |
| cilia and flagella | flagella (tail) and cilia (hair thingies). help cells move |
| which of the following is present in prokaryotic cells: a. mitochondria b. ribosomes. c. nuclear envelope. d. chloroplast. e. ER | b. ribosomes |
| which cell would be best for studying lysosomes. a. muscle cell b. nerve cell c. phagocytic white blood cell. d. leaf cell of a plant. e. bacterial cell | c. phagocytic white blood cell |
| cyanide helps produce ATP. cell exposed to cyanide, most of the cyanide would be found in: a. mitochondria b. ribosomes. c. peroxisomes. d. lysosomes. e. ER | a. mitochondria |
| what is a key property of the plasma membrane that makes it uber important | selective permeability. its ability to only allow some things in and out |
| a phospholipid is an ________ moleucule, meaning it has both a hydrophobic and hydrophilic region | amphipathic |
| fluid mosaic model | membrane is a fluid structure (movable and fluidy) with a "mosaic" of proteins within the double layer |
| because membranes are held together by hydrophobic interactions it allows the membrane to be able to | shift and move and be fluidy (in the fluid mosaic model) |
| why are proteins able to be part of the membrane | because of their hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions of the protein that match the hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic heads of the lipids |
| integral proteins | penetrate the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer |
| peripheral proteins | are not embedded into the bilayer but instead are bound to the surface of the embrane, |
| what are the major functions of membrane proteins | transport, enzymatic activity, signal transduction, cell-cell recognition, intercellular joining, attachment to cytoskeleton |
| what proteins help in cell cell recognition | glycoproteins that have carbohydrates attached to them as an identification tag |
| transport proteins that have hydrophillic channels for some molecules to pass through are sometimes called | channel proteins |
| the transport protein that aids int he passage of water molecules is called the | aquaporin |
| diffusion that does not require energy is called | passive transport |
| in simulation, with a containe filled with water and a permeable barrier in the middle. one side is filled with many orange dye molecules and one side is filled a few purple molecules. how will diffusion occur | each dye diffuses down its own concentration gradient. there will be a net diffusion of the purple dye toward the orange dye even though the total solute concentration (both orange and purple) is essentially greater on the orange side |
| what happens to plant and animal cells in isotonic solutions | animal cells are normal while plant cells are flaccid (limp) |
| what happens to plant and animal cells in hypotonic cells | animal cells get lysed while plant cells have turgid pressure and so are essentially normal |
| what happens to plant and animal cells in hypertonic solutions | animal cells shrivel while plant cells are plasmolyzed (extremely limp) |
| for organisms without cell wall what must they do in order to maintain a balance between water and salt concentration | osmoregulate for balance of water |
| passive transport aided by proteins is called | facilitated diffusion |
| carrier proteins | alternate between two shapes moving solute across the membrane during the shape change. follows concentration gradient and so does not require energy |
| ion channels | let ions in and out with gated channels which respond to certain stimulus |
| sodium potassium pump is what kind of transport | active transport |
| is pinocytosis specific or nonspecific in the substances it transports? | nonspecific. the molecules dissolved in the fluid is needed in pinocytosis normally |
| catabolic vs. anabolic pathway | breaking down molecules and releasing energy vs. consuming energy to build molecules |
| the potential of the amount of energy released by a chemical reaction | chemical energy |
| 1st law of thermodynamics | energy has to be transferred and transformed. cant be created or destroyed |
| second law of thermodynamics | every energy transfer or transformation increases entropy. chemical reactions are never 100% efficient, some energy is lost as heat or something else, hence entropy |
| exergonic vs endergonic reaction | free energy releasing reaction vs. intake of free energy |
| energy coupling | the use of an exergonic process to drive an endergonic one |
| ATP is said to be hydorlized when it releases energy, the recipient of the phosphate group released from the ATP is then said to be | phosphorylated |
| what is unique about ATP | it is recycable. the lost phosphate group during hydrolosis can be replenished with phosphorylation |
| activation energy | initial investment of energy needed for starting a reaction |
| how do enzymes catalyze reactions | they lower activation energy barrier without having the reactant molecule to have to absorb so much heat that it destroys the cell or the molecule. the molecule can get to its transition state sooner and faster and then go on with its reaction |
| what are unique traits about enzymes | their specificity and that they are reusable |
| what affect enzyme activity | temperature and ph. enzymes and proteins and if the right environmental conditions are not met the protein structure can denature. at optimal temperature and pH the enzymes can work really well |
| cofactors | nonprotein helpers for catalytic activities. may be bound tightly to the enzyme as permanent resident, or loosely bound for temporary. |
| if cofactors are organic molecules then they are called | coenzymes |
| competitive inhibitors | are mimics of substrates and reduce the productivity of enzymes by blocking substrates from entering active sites |
| noncompetitive inhibitors | bind to another part of enzyme, change enzyme shape, so that substrates cant fit into active sites anymore |
| allosteric regulation | describes any case in which a protein's function at one site is affected by the binding of a regulatory molecule to separate site. |
| the binding of a ________ to a regulatory site stabilizes the shape that has funcitonal active sites, whereas the biding of an _______stabilizes the inactive form of enzymes | activator; inhibitor |
| cooperativity | if an enzyme has two or more subunits a substrate molecules causing induced fit in one subunit can trigger the same favorable shape change in all other subunits of enzyme |
| feedback inhibition | when a product of a metabolic pathway switches off its own pathway. |
| if an enzyme is added to a solution where its substrate and product are in equilibrium what would occur | nothing the reaction would stay at equilibrium |
| most cells cannot harness heat to perform work because | temperature is usually uniform throughout a cell |
| is what way do the membranes of a eukaryotic cell vary | certain proteins are unique to each membrane |
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