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bio 1st sem. 1st yr
ecology and evolution final
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is ecology? | the study of interactions of organisms |
| what are the levels of organization? | -molecules -organelles -cells -tissues -organs/ organ systems -organisms -populations -communities -ecosystems -biosphere |
| what does community ecology study? | groups of populations of different species close enough to interact. EX: coral reefs Note: these interactions can be helpful or harmful! |
| what does population ecology study? | one population of one species in the same or general close area. |
| What does ecosystem ecology study? | the community and non living environment of a certain place. (biotic and abiotic) |
| what is a biome? | type of ecosystems with similar climate and structure. -the major ecosystems of t |
| what is the biosphere? | Thin layer of Earth with life, including all populations, communities, ecosystems, and biomes! |
| what are genes? | section of DNA that encodes info for building protein or RNA molecules. |
| what did Charles Darwin contribute to science? | Natural selection! NOT EVOLUTION!! |
| the evolution of pesticide resistance | 1- mutation for thicker cuticle. 2-they lay a lot of eggs. 3- next generation= huge population of resistant pests |
| Mutations are.... | random. BUT evolution is NOT random!! |
| Can humans get antibiotic resistance?! | YES! Examples: TB, Sinus infection Staph infection. -A lot of illnesses are viral, not bacterial.. but if you take a lot of antibiotic then when you DO have a bacterial illness it WON'T LEAVE. |
| how are hypotheses tested? | through experimentation, observation, and comparison. |
| Difference between a hypothesis and a theory... | Hypothesis- educated guess. theory- a promotion when it is supported with lots of testing and support for explanation. |
| how much fresh water is there in the world? | only 3% |
| What was the food chain in the experimental pond we had lab in? | -The base was the photosynthesizers (phytoplankton)and filamentous algae -herbivores (can't photosynthesize) -carnivores (secondary consumers) |
| What is thermal stratification? | the formation of temperature layers in lakes. |
| What are the layers of thermal stratification? | 1-Epilimnion (top). 2- thermocline (middle). 3- hypolimnion (bottom). |
| different kinds of littoral zones... or intertidal zones | -sandy shores (huge concentration of migrating birds) -rocky shores (tidepool communities).... completely underwater on one side and high up on the other. O.o |
| what is productivity? | -the rate of carbon fixation --directly related to the amount of photosynthesis that is being done per unit. |
| levels of productivity in aquatic ecosystems... | eutrophic- very productive (high concentration of nutrients oligotrophic- low productivity (low amount of nutrients) |
| What can make certain aquatic ecosystems eutrophic? | -human fertilizer runoff (from farms and lawns) - high ratio of nutrients in water to water volume (maybe shallow waters) |
| what is cultural eutrophication? | -eutrophication due to human fertilizer runoff. -causes a blooming of the photosynthesizers and this depletes the oxygen!! |
| What can cause an aquatic ecosystem to be oligotrophic? | -DEEP water dilutes nutrients -acidic surrounding geologic material -vulnerable to acid rain |
| What is coral? | an animal that is ALSO able to photosynthesize and make its own food! -Note- located in shallow tropical waters over the continental shelf. |
| What is the neritic zone? | otherwise known as the continental self, this area is shallow enough to have some seaweed and other rooted algae. -NOTE!: so close to the shoreline that it is very susceptible to pollution. (cultural eutrophication. =/) |
| What is an esturary? | where a river meets the ocean, like a bay. NOTE!: can have a lot of pollution from rivers. -some salt and some fresh water. |
| In what aquatic zone are salt marshes located? | The littoral zone |
| What are some characteristics of the abyssal zone? | -cold -very dark -very fer nutrients -where underwater smoking vents are |
| how are terrestrial ecosystem types distinguished? | by growth forms and climate |
| what is climate? | ling-term prevailing weather conditions in one place. |
| What does a climograph do? | In determines the different biomes in terms of temperature and precipitation. |
| What effects climate and temperature? | Higher up in latitude= lower temperatures. --Because the sun hits directly on equator! |
| What are the different biomes? | 1-Tundra- cold, treeless biome (near poles- the sun's low angle) 2-Rain forest, near equator, low latitude, high temp. lots of rain. |
| Why aren't there desserts on the equator? | because that it where the ascending moist air releases moisture= rainforests. ----the poles and desserts are dry because that is where the dry air descends. |
| What do mountains do to precipitation? | Rain shadow effect- dry on the side of the mountain that gets dry air. ---the higher you go up a mountain you will have different vegetation. |
| aside from latitude, what else can affect temperature? | -elevation -proximity to bodies of water. -global air circulation |
| What effects the precipitation-- | -there are dry zones at 30 degrees latitude. -dry at poles -rain shadow on mountains |
| Why is England so warm if it is so far north? | -because of the conveyer belt of warm water. |
| Issues with the biome concept | 1-generalization about large region obscures variation like the ones in wetlands. 2-ecotones and transitions are important! |
| What is an ecotone? | the boundary between 2 ecosystems Note: these can be fuzzy OR sharp. EXAMPLE: oak savanna is between a prairie and forest |
| What type of interaction is competition? | -/- 2 individuals using the same resource. (could be competition for light by trees) -interference competition-when one competitor blocks the other from getting the resource. |
| intraspecific competition | competition within a species |
| interspecific competition | competition between two different species. |
| What parts create a niche? | -a species' use of resources(biotic and abiotic) -the environment it lives in |
| possible outcomes of competition | -resource partitioning -character displacement -competitive exclusion principle -coexist |
| fundamental niche | conditions where a species can occur without competitors present |
| realized niche | where a species occurs in presence of competition. (usually smaller than the fundamental niche) |
| Study of competition and fundamental and realized niches... | The barnacles that lived at different tide levels of a rock. |
| primary producers are | also known as autographs. The only organisms that can photosynthesize. |
| What are detritivores? | also known as decomposees, these guys eat detritus and decomposed dead matter Examples:scavengers, fungi, bacteria |
| adaptations of predators... | example 1: lions- strong legs and jaws example 2: snakes- can open their jaws really wide |
| adaptations of prey... | -cryptic coloration- camouflage -physical defenses- porcupine -aposematic coloration- warning colors. -batesian mimicry- a harmless copying a harmful. -mullerian mimicry- 2 harmful species that look alike. |
| keystone predator | predator that helps maintain community structure and diversity. NOTE: they might not be super abundant but with a strong influence. EXAMPLE: if muscles and barnacles are competing the sea star comes in and let the underdog win!(eating the more abundan |
| population cycles | regular fluctuations. |
| what could be the cause for population cycles? | 1- predator fluctuations. 2- food shortage. 3- disease in crowded populations. |
| what is an ecosystem engineer? | A type of keystone species. They don't effect the population but can dramatically change the environment. EXAMPLE: beavers build dams that transform ecosystems from streams and dryland to ponds and wetlands. |
| what is a keystone species? | a species whose presence helps maintain community structure and diversity. -plays a very important role in maintaining diversity in a biological community. Note:not all of them are predators! Ex: sea otters benefit the kelp by eating sea urchins. |
| what kind of interaction is mutualism? | +/+ interspecific interaction that benefit both species. Note: this can be both direct and indirect! |
| what kind of interaction is commensalism? | +/o interaction benefits one species but doesn't effect the other. Example: water buffalo stir up insects that cattle egrets eat (type of bird). NOTE: benefits can be direct and indirect. |
| what are the three levels of biodiversity? | 1-genetic diversity 2-species diversity and richness 3-ecological diversity (including adaptations, behavior, interactions) |
| what are some of the consequences of low genetic diversity? | -high susceptibility to disease -high infant mortality -low fertility -sperm abnormalities |
| what are the components of ecological diversity? | the intactness of community and ecosystem with full set of natural interactions, behaviors, and linkages with the abiotic environment. |
| What are the three levels of preserving biodiversity? | -preserving genetic diversity within a species. -preserving full diversity of species. -preserving whole ecosystems, behaviors, interactions. |
| what are the 2 components of species diversity? Note: species diversity depends on BOTH! | 1- species richness: number of species 2- species evenness: how equal the species are in their abundance. |
| what are the setbacks of measuring species diversity with species richness. | it just counts the number of species there are, not even the number there are in each species. (or if their invasive) |
| What are the two views on how species should be preserved? | -anthropocentric view- species should be valued for their benefits to humans. -biocentric view- ethical and ecological issue. (we have a responsibility) |
| what percentage of prescription drugs are derived from plants? | 25-40 percent! (aspiring: derived from the bark of tropical willow)(also:latex, rosy periwinkle for child leukemia, |
| what is a disturbance? | abrupt events that remove individuals from a community and that changes resource availability. |
| what ecosystems require a disturbance? | tall grass prairie, plains in NJ, and temperate grasslands require fire to maintain endangered species (eliminates competition). -serotinous cones: open only with fire (tree species with adaptation for frequent fire.) |
| what is the intermediate disturbance hypothesis? | highest diversity is achieved with intermediate disturbances. |
| What are the stages of succession? | 1-disturbance. 2-pioneer species. 3-successtional species-things grow and get shaded out. 4-steady state. |
| what are patch dynamics? | a zone usually created by a disturbance that differs in resource availability. -light gaps -rotting logs -windrow mounds. |
| what are the three ways to reconstruct and predict changes in communities over time? | -dendrochronology -permanent plots -paleoecology |
| which type of species is the most endangered? | freshwater species! because of invasive species, dams, and pollution. |
| what is a native species? | species found in a place before human rearrangements. |
| what is an invasive species? | an introduced species that is able to spread to and reproduce in areas distant from site of introduction. |
| what effects to invasive species have? | -predation -competition -soil chemistry -fire frequency -indirect effects (snakes on guam made the island silent and now tree species aren't getting properly dispersed) |
| threats to imperiled species in the USA | -habitat destruction and degradation -alien species -pollution -hunting, collecting -disease (example: herbivory by invasive insects) |
| What can be done to control invasive plants? | -stop the sale of invasive plants. -make native plants more available. -prevent forest fragmentation. -remove invasive plants. -preserve and restore natural lands. |
| What is biomagnification? | the species that are higher up in a food chain suffer greater effects of the chemicals in the environment. |
| what is the importance of population ecology? | -protecting rare species -wildlife and fisheries management -forestry -human population -conservation of wildlife |
| what are the 2 ways to get data for a life table? | 1-cohort life table --monitor survival vs. mortality of ONE cohort. 2-static life table --census at ONE point in time. |
| the steps of the mark-recapture method are... | 1- catch animals alive 2- mark animals and release them 3- second trapping effort (find how many of these were marked the first time). |
| what factors influence population size and dynamics? | -births -deaths- -immigration -emigration |
| what is a cohort? | a group that is born at the same time. |
| what is carrying capacity? (K) | the maximum population size the habitat can support. |
| what are density dependent population regulations? | 1-territoritality 2-predation (the larger population= the easier prey!) 3-disease 4-competition for resources |
| what is dispersion? | spreading of a species (clumped, regular, or truly random). |
| what is distribution? | where a species is found; the range of a species. |
| biotic and abiotic factors that effect the distribution of organisms... | -temperature -water (precip. and intertidal dry interval) -other aspects of climate -oxygen in water -sunlight -wind -soil |
| what is dispersal? | the movement of an organism (including seeds) from one location to another. |
| what are the two kinds of reproductive trends in frequency? | 1- semelparity (or big-band reproduction) 2- iteroparity (or repeated reproduction) NOTE: this sexual patterns are shaped by natural selection. (when, how often, and how many offspring each time.) |
| what is iteroparity? | (or repeated reproduction)- sexual pattern to produce offspring repeatedly--investing in reproduction but also survival. NOTE: dependable environments may favor repeated reproduction. |
| what is semelparity? | (or big-band reproduction)- sexual pattern to reproduce ONCE AND DIE. NOTE: high variable or unpredictable environments likely favor big band reproduction. |
| What is the green house effect? | natural gases trap the heat from the sun, increasing the earth's temperature. INCLUDE: carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide.(and water vapor too!) |
| What different forms of evidence have shown us that global warming is occurring? | 1-direct temperature records. 2-melting glaciers. (have made way for new shipping routes -_-) 3-rising sea level. 4-paleoclimate proxies.-> ice cores, tree rings, fossils 5-changes in plants and animals. (distribution & changes in reproductive schedul |
| what is an allele? | one of the alternative forms of a gene. |
| what is a gene? | a section of DNA that codes for one protein or protein subunit. |
| what is homozygous? | when both alleles for a gene are the same in an individual. |
| What is heterozygous? | when the alleles for a gene are different in an individual. |
| What 2 sources of genetic variation in a population? | mutation and predation. |
| What is mutation? | change in sequence of DNA which forms new alleles. (can be cause by radiation, chemicals, or infectious agents.) |
| what are the two modes of inheritance? | sex chromosomes and autosomes. (autosomal dominant or autosomal recessive.) |
| what is epigenetics? | chemical markers and switches along the DNA molecule which together turn genes on and off. |
| what is phenotype? | the realized expression of the genotype; the physical appearance of functional expression of trait. |
| what is genotype? | the genetic constitution underlying a single trait. |
| what is pliotropy | - when one gene has multiple effects. EX: Marfan syndrome |
| what is epistasis? | when you have more than 1 gene controlling a phenotype. Ex 1: the pepper colors Ex 2: Labrador retrievers. |
| what is polygenic inheritance? | quantitative traits (like skin color, height) |
| what is a linked trait? | genes that are close together on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together. (and they're more likely to cross over together) |
| what is a genome? | one cell's DNA |
| what is a gene pool? | all alleles for all genes for one individual within a population. |
| What is DNA made of? | -deoxyribonucleic acid -nucleic acis -double helix structure. ---ea. nucleotide contains sugar (deoxyribose - 5 carbons), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. |
| How does DNA store information? | in the sequence of nitrogenous bases. (only 4 types exist in DNA) --Guanine and Cytosine (C-G) --Adenine and Thymine (A-T) |
| what is a karyotype? | a display of homologous chromosomes (homologues) lined up. |
| what does it mean to be haploid? | -having one set of chromosomes: Only one of each homologous pair. NOTE: to change from a diploid to a haploid requires meiosis. |
| What are the 2 ways of allocating DNA on chromosomes to new cells in Eukaryotes? | meiosis (sexual reproduction) and mitosis (in growth) |
| what results from meiosis? | -haploid SEX-cells (gametes), b/c after chromosome replication they divide TWICE. |
| What results from mitosis? | diploids because after replication they only divide ONCE. |
| what causes down syndrome? | an extra chromosome #21. NOTE: more likely when moms are older. |
| how can chromosomal abnormalities be detected in zygotes? | -aminocetesis (for "high risk" pregnancies.) -chorionic villi sample ---they're checked for karyotype (chromosomes), enzyme production, and specific genes |
| what are the 3 approaches to genetics? | 1-population genetics-- genetic variation, change, and equilibrium in population. 2-medelian genetic-- focus on principles of inheritance 3-molecular genetics-- genes as they functioned or malfunctioned as molecules (DNA, RNA, proteins) |
| What does the hardy-weinberg principle state? | if no evolution is taking place then the allele frequency will remain at an unchanging equilibrium. |
| what are the 5 principles for Hardy-weinberg equilibrium? | 1-no natural selection 2-random mating 3-no genetic drift 4-no gene flow 5-no mutations |
| What are the 5 modes of natural selection? | 1-directional selection 2-stabilizing selection 3-disruptive selection 4-oscillating selection 5-frequency-dependent selection |
| why is heterozygous preferred? | 1-selection against inbreeding depression (loss of fitness) 2-heterozygote advantage (EX:HIV patients develop AIDs slower if their heterozygote for MHC) 3-survival in ever-changing environment |
| what is the bottleneck effect? | A reduction in a population size can cause genetic drift. |
| What is the founder effect? | When an area is colonized by a number of individuals from the parent population. EX: Maple syrup urine |
| how can we piece together evolutionary relationships? | 1- during development (chick and human embryos have gills and tails!) 2- homologous traits. (similarity due to a common ancestor) |
| what is evolution y artificial selection? | Change over time b/c of humans selecting for or against inherited characteristics. (WE TOTALLY KNEW THAT TRAITS WERE INHERITED!...kinda.) |
| what occurred in the scopes trial? | fundamentalist Christians tried to stop the teaching of evolution. |
| What do fundamentalist Christians live by? | -inerrancy of bible -scripture as fact |
| What is creationism? (creation science) | one religious view that there was no change to any species, life began 4000 years ago, and humans are a special and separate species. NO NEW SPECIES |
| What is intelligent design? | An intelligent creator was the only way that life could be so amazing. (irreducible complexity: eyes and flagella) |
| what is science? | knowledge gained by the scientific method of observation and experimentation. |
| What is a scientific theory? | a hypothesis supported by a large body of evidence. |
| What were darwin's key concepts? | 1-descent with modification 2-adaptation 3-artificial selection 4-natural selection |
| What is taxonomy? | Classifying and naming groups of organisms according to evolutionary relationships. |
| What are the 3 domains? | 1-Domain bacteria (prokaryotic cells) 2-Domain archaea (Prokaryotic cells) 3-domain eukarya (eukaryotic cells) |
| How is a species name written? | Genus is capitalized and species is in lower case. (NOTE! all is in italics) |
| What does the biological species concept state? | Species are separated by their ability to mate and make VIABLE offspring. (LIMITATIONS ARE... can't apply to asexual organisms and what about hybridization... like the grolar bear?) |
| What are the 2 scenarios for speciation? | 1- allopatric- with geographic barrier. (through dispersal or vicariance) 2- sympatric- with no geographic barrier. (with polyploidy) |
| What is polyploidy? | A failure to divide results in more than 2 sets of chromosomes (seen in plants especially) |
| What is adaptive radiation? | A sudden diversification in a group with formation of multiple new species filling multiple niches. (remember the finches.. and the cichlid fish) |
| Plant adaptations | 1- Carnivorous plants- in places low in nutrients 2- desert adaptations to conserve water (CAM: stomata only opens at night) 3- |
| What is a monophyletic trait? | a trait that only evolved once. -homologous traits |
| What is a polyphyletic trait? | a trait that evolved more than once (through convergent evolution) -analogous traits |
| What are stromatolites? | reef-like, formed by sedimentary rock on cyanobacteria. |
| What does the endosymbiont theory propose? | that mitochondria and plastids were formally small prokaryotes livin within a larger host cell. NOTE: an endosymbiont is a cell that lives within a host cell. |
| What is a marsupial? | Mammals with pouches |
| What are monotremes? | mammals that lay eggs. |
| What are Eutherians? | placental mammals |
| What does wallace's line show? | a division in species in Asia and Wallacea |
| What are possible causes for mass extinctions? | 1-impacts: meteorites, comets 2-volcanism 3-climate change 4-corridors and biotic exchanges 5-invasion by homosapians. |
| What were some consequences of mass extinctions? | -ecological communities and niches available to organisms. -percentage of predators increase. -new adaptive radiation! |
| causes for the sixth mass extinction | 1-habitat fragmentation 2-introduced species 3-hunting/ collecting 4-pollution + global warming |
| what is behavior? | all acts an animal performs. -the nervous system response to a stimulus and is carried out by the muscular or hormonal system. |
| What is used for navigation during migration? | -The north star -magnetite -the sun + a caradian clock |
| Different forms of animal communication | 1- visual 2- auditory 3- tactitle 4- chemical (pheromones) |
| What is innate behavior? | developmentally fixed |
| why has sociobiology has become controversial? | because it can be used to justify crimes |
| What is altruism? | animal behaviors that reduce the individuals fitness but increases the fitness of others. |
| What is reciprocal altruism? | altruistic behavior toward unrelated individuals done if the aided individual returns the favor in the future. |
| What is kin selection? | the natural selection that favor altruistic behavior by enhancing reproductive success of relatives. |
| What is inclusive fitness? | the total effect an individual has on proliferating it genes by producing offspring and helping close relatives produce offspring. |
| What are 3 mechanisms that constitute genetic variation in sexual reproduction? | -crossing over -independent assortment of chromosomes -random fertilization |
| What is macroevolution? | evolution above the species level. |
| What is microevolution? | changes over time in allele frequencies in a population. |
| what is allopolyploid? | hybrid species that can mate with each other but not either species it came from. (NEW SPECIES!) |
| what is an autoployploid? | an individual that has more than 2 chromosome sets that are all derived from a single species. |
| What is a hybrid zone? | a region in which members of different species meet and mate, producing at least some offspring with mixed ancestry. |
| What is cognition? | the process of knowing that involves awareness, reasoning, recollection, and judgement. |
| What is sociobiology? | A discipline of evolutionary theory. (behaviors because of genes.) |
| What is macroevolution? | evolution above the species level. |
| What is microevolution? | changes over time in allele frequencies in a population. |
| what is allopolyploid? | hybrid species that can mate with each other but not either species it came from. (NEW SPECIES!) |
| what is an autoployploid? | an individual that has more than 2 chromosome sets that are all derived from a single species. |
| What is a hybrid zone? | a region in which members of different species meet and mate, producing at least some offspring with mixed ancestry. |
| What is cognition? | the process of knowing that involves awareness, reasoning, recollection, and judgement. |
| What is sociobiology? | A discipline of evolutionary theory. (behaviors because of genes.) |
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