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Bio- Biochem
Chapters 2-5
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| atomic number | number of protons |
| mass number | number of protons and neutrons |
| atomic mass | mass of protons and neutrons |
| isotopes | atoms of the same element that have different number of neutrons |
| stable isotopes | nuclei do not have tendency to lose particles |
| radioactive isotopes | nucleus decays spontaneously giving off particles and energy. decays to lose protons and therefore forms a differnt atom |
| electron shells | spaces where electrons are found.shells closest to nucleus have lowest energy shells farthest from nucleus have highest energy. electron absorbs energy it moves to farther shell electron loses energy moves to closest shell |
| valence shells | outermost electron shells. determines chemical behavior of atoms. atoms with completed shells will be unreactive. |
| what are the four elements that make up most matter | carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen |
| covalent bond | sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms. strong and stable |
| electronegativity | attraction of a particular kind of atom for the electron of a covalent bond. the more electronegative the stronger the pull on an electron |
| nonpolar covalent bonds | when two atoms of the same element have the same electronegativity and so they share the electrons equally |
| polar covalent bonds | one atom bonded to a more electronegative atom, the electrons are not shared equally. bonds vary in polarity depending on relative electronegativity of two atoms |
| ionic bonds | an atom completely strips another atom's electron, forming ions. the ion with the electron becomes negative (anion) and the ion without the electron becomes positive (cation), and because of opposite charges the ions attract together forming a bond |
| compounds formed by ionic bonds are called | ionic compounds or salts |
| hydrogen bond | weak. hydrogen atom covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is also attracted to another electronegative atom. (often oxygen or nitrogen) |
| atomic number | number of protons |
| mass number | number of protons and neutrons |
| atomic mass | mass of protons and neutrons |
| isotopes | atoms of the same element that have different number of neutrons |
| stable isotopes | nuclei do not have tendency to lose particles |
| radioactive isotopes | nucleus decays spontaneously giving off particles and energy. decays to lose protons and therefore forms a differnt atom |
| electron shells | spaces where electrons are found.shells closest to nucleus have lowest energy shells farthest from nucleus have highest energy. electron absorbs energy it moves to farther shell electron loses energy moves to closest shell |
| valence shells | outermost electron shells. determines chemical behavior of atoms. atoms with completed shells will be unreactive. |
| what are the four elements that make up most matter | carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen |
| covalent bond | sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms. strong and stable |
| electronegativity | attraction of a particular kind of atom for the electron of a covalent bond. the more electronegative the stronger the pull on an electron |
| nonpolar covalent bonds | when two atoms of the same element have the same electronegativity and so they share the electrons equally |
| polar covalent bonds | one atom bonded to a more electronegative atom, the electrons are not shared equally. bonds vary in polarity depending on relative electronegativity of two atoms |
| ionic bonds | an atom completely strips another atom's electron, forming ions. the ion with the electron becomes negative (anion) and the ion without the electron becomes positive (cation), and because of opposite charges the ions attract together forming a bond |
| compounds formed by ionic bonds are called | ionic compounds or salts |
| hydrogen bond | weak. hydrogen atom covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is also attracted to another electronegative atom. (often oxygen or nitrogen) |
| molecular shape is important because | it determines how a molecule will recognize and respond to another molecule thereby doing its function |
| water is what type of molecule | polar |
| polar molecule | two ends of a molecule have opposite charges. the oxygen negative and the hydrogen positive of water and so they are attracted towards each other |
| the hydrogen bonds of water | constantly break and reform in liquid form |
| cohesion | hydrogen bonds hold the substance (water) together |
| how is cohesion used in organisms | contributes to the transport of water and dissolved nutrients against gravity in plants. |
| adhesion | the clinging of one substance to another (water) |
| how is adhesion used in organisms | adhesion of water to cell walls by hydrogen bonds to help counter the downward pull of gravity |
| surface tension | measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid. water had greater surface tension than other liquids |
| water has high specific heat | ability of water to stabilize temperature. it is the amount of heat that is absorbed or lost for 1 gram of that substance to change its temperature by 1 degrees C |
| water has high heat of vaporization | quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted from liquid to gas. regulates earth's climate |
| water's density | ice is less dense than water itself. this provides insulation in frozen lakes and ponds |
| water is what in an aqueous solution | a solvent. water is a very versatile solvent. some things can dissolve in it while others wont. |
| hydrophilic | substance that has affinity for water. the substance doesn't have to dissolve completely. substances suspended in water are just as hydrophilic (cotton towels can absorb water but wont dissolve in water) |
| hydrophobic | repel water and dont dissolve in water. for example oil |
| hydrogen ion | a single proton (hydrogen) that leaves its electron behind to another molecule. |
| hydroxide ion | a water molecule that has a lost a proton ( a hydrogen ion that has left behind its electron) (OH-) |
| hydronium ion | the free proton (hydrogen ion) attaches to another water molecule (an oxygen with 3 hydrogens now) |
| acid | substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution. for example when hydrochloric acid is added to water the hydrogen ions dissociate from chloride ions. the release of hydrogen ions make solution acidic |
| basic | a substance that reduces the hydrogen ions in a solution. the taking in or bonding of hydrogen ions to a compound decrease the number of hydrogen ions in the solution thereby making it basic |
| whats another way to make a solution basic besides the taking in of a hydrogen ion | indirectly reduce hydrogen ions by forming hydroxide ions, which combines water and the hydrogen bonds. such as sodium hydroxide. |
| pH | negative log (base 10) of the hydrogen ion concentration. pH = -log[H+] |
| buffers | minimuze changes in concentration of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions in solutions by either accepting hydrogen ions in solutions or releasing them depending on the solution |
| whats the backbone of life | carbon |
| organic chem | study of carbon compounds |
| methane | when a carbon atom has four single bonds to other bonds. the molecule is tetrahedral (CH4) |
| ethane | a molecule may have more than one tetrahedral group of single bonded atoms. C2H6 |
| ethene | when two carbon atoms are joined by a double bond all atoms attached to those carbons are in the same place; the molecule is flat. C2H4 |
| what do carbon skeletons vary in | length. double blonds (where the double bonds are). branching (if it branches or doesnt). and rings |
| hydrocarbons | molecules consisting of only carbons and hydrogens |
| characteristics of hydrocarbons | covalent stable bonds. non polar. not soluble in water-hydrophobic. very little attraction between molecules |
| isomers | variation in architecture of organic molecules |
| structural isomers | differ in covalent arrangements of their atoms. have the same number of atoms of each element but they are arranged differently |
| geometric isomers | double bond causes difference in spatial relationships of end atoms. the covalent bonds and partners are the same, but where they are placed around the doublee bonded main atoms is different |
| enantiomers | mirror images of each other. differ in spatial arrangement around an asymmetric carbon. L and D isomers |
| functional groups | chemical groups that affect molecular function by being directly involved in chemical reactions |
| hydroxyl group | (-OH)a hydrogen atom bonded to an oxygen atom, which is bonded to a carbon skeleton of organic molecule. not a hydroxide ion. ALCOHOLS. example: ethanol. |
| properties of hydroxyl groups | polar because electrons hang more toward oxygen atom. can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules, helping dissolve organic compounds like sugar. neutral in pH.. hydrophilic |
| carbonyl group | consists of carbon atoms joined to an oxygen atom by a double bond. ketones: if carbonyl is within carbon skeleton. aldehydes: if carbonyl group at the end of carbon skeleton. example: acetone (ketone) and propanal (aldehyde) |
| properties of carbonyl groups | may have structural isomers. polar and hydrophilic |
| carboxyl group | oxygen atom is double bonded to a carbon adom that is bonded to an -OH group. oorganic acids. example: acetic acids. |
| properties of carboxyl groups | acidic (source of hydrogen ions). bond between oxygen and oxygen makes it acidic and polar. hydrophilic |
| amino groups | nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms (-NH2). amines. example: glycine. |
| properties of amino groups | basic. can pick up hydrogen ions from surrounding solutions. polar and hydrophilic |
| sulfhydryl | sulfur atom bonded to hydrogen atom. thiols. exmaple: cysteine. |
| properties of sulfhydryl | two of these groups can react forming covalent bonds for cross-linking to stabilize proteins. hydrophilic and polar |
| phosphate groups | phosphorus atom bonded to 4 oxygen atoms, one oxygen is bonded to carbon skeleton. two oxygens carry negative charges. organic phosphates. example: glycerol phosphate. |
| properties of phosphate groups | contributes to negative charge of molecule. is acidic, polar, and hydrophilic. tranfers energy between organic molecules |
| methyl | carbon bonded to three hydrogen atoms. methylated compounds. example: 5 methyl cytidine. |
| properties of methyl | affects genes. polar, charged, hydrogphilic, acidic |
| macromolecules | carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids |
| polymer | long moelcule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds |
| monomers | smaller molecules that are the building blocks of polymers |
| dehydration synthesis | a reaction that connects monomers by forming a covalent bond through the loss of a water molecule. one monomer provides a hydroxyl group (-OH) and the other provides a hydrogen. |
| enzymes | dehydration process is facilitated by these specialized macromolecules that speed up chemical reactions |
| hydrolysis | polymers are disassembled to monomers by adding water to break them down. through the addition of a water molecule a hydrogen and a hydroxyl group is added to the polymer breaking it down into monomers |
| carbohydrates | are sugars and polymers of sugars. |
| monomer of a carb | monosaccharides. example: glucose |
| 2 monomer of carbs | disaccharides. example: sucrose |
| polymers of a carbs | polysaccharides. example: starch |
| basic structure of sugars | a carbonyl group and multiple hydroxyl groups. if carbonyle is ketone the sugar is ketose, if carbonyle is aldehyde then sugar is aldose. sugars are in RING STRUCTURES |
| function for monosaccharides | nutrients, energy, used for synthesis for other molecules |
| glcosidic linkage | a covalent bond formed between to monosaccharides by dehydration synthesis |
| polysaccharides | macromolecules, polymers with many monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkage. |
| function of polysaccharides | storage material, building material, |
| starch | used by plants for storage of energy and nutrients |
| glycogen | polymer of glucose that is used by human and animals for storage of nutrients and energy |
| cellulose | only usable by plants. a polysaccharide that is major componenet for tough walls for structure |
| chitin | arthropods to build exoskeletons. structure |
| lipids | are not considered macromolecules and dont have specific polymers and monomers, but are grouoped together because they mix poorly, if at all, with water. hydrophobic |
| what are the smaller molecules of lipids called | fats |
| what are fats made of | glycerol and fatty acids and hydrocarbon chains |
| glycerol | alcohol with three carbon each with hydroxly group |
| fatty acid | long carbon skeleton. carbon at one end of fatty acid is part of carboxyl group (gives it its acidic properties). |
| why do fats separate from water | the water molecules hydrogen bond to one another and exclude the fats. the nonpolar hydrocarbon bondds in hydrocarbon chain give them their hydrophobic characteristic |
| what joins fatty acid molecules together | ester linkages |
| tricylglycerol | three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule |
| saturated fatty acid | no double bonds between carbon atoms composing the hydrocarbon chain, so as many hydrogens are bonded to carbon skeleton |
| unsatruated fatty acid | has one or more double bonds by the removal oof a hydrogen atom from the skeleton. |
| phospholipids | are important for cell membrane. hydrocarbon tails are hydrophobic and excluded from water, but the phosphate group on the hydrophilic heads make an affinity for water. form a bilayer for cell membrain |
| steriods | lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings. |
| functions of proteins | catalysts and enzymes, transportation, storage of amino acids, movement, protection |
| polymers of protein | polypeptide |
| protein | consists of one or more polypepetides, each folded and coiled into specific three dimensional structure |
| monomer of protein | amino acid |
| amino acids | organic molecules possessing both carboxyl and amino groups |
| general form of amino group | at the center is assymetric carbon atom. then there is an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and variable group called R (the side chain) |
| how are polypeptides formed | when two amino acids are positions so that the amino group of one is adjacent to the other's carboxyl group, dehydration reaction happens, & a peptide bond is formed. so at one end is c-terminus (carboxyl group)& the other end is n-terminus (amino group) |
| primary structure of a protein | unique sequence of amino acids. it is determined by inherited genetic information |
| secondary structure | segments of polypeptide chains repeatedly coiled or folded. result of hydrogen bonds between the repeating constituents of the polypeptide backbone |
| alpha helix | a delicate coild held together by hydrogen bonding between every fourth amino acid. |
| beta pleated sheet | two or more regions of the polypeptide chain lying side by side are connected by hydrogen bonds between part of the two parallel polypeptide backbones. |
| tertiary structure of proteins | overall shape of polypeptide resulting form interactions between the side chains (R groups) of various amino acids. |
| hydrophobic interaction of tertiary structures | as polypeptide folds into its functional shape, amino acids with hydrophobic side chains usually end up in clusters at the core of the protein, out of water. |
| disulfide bridges | two amino acids with sulfyhydryl groups on their side chains are brought close together by the folding of the protein. the sulfur of one group bonds to the sulfur of the other group, and bride rivets part of protein together |
| quaternary structure of protein | overall protein structure that results from aggregation of two or more polypeptide chains |
| deenaturations | proteins unravel and lose native shape |
| nucleic acids | unit of inhertance known as genes |
| monomer of nucleic acid | nucleotide |
| polymer of nucleic acid | DNA and RNA (polynucleotides) |
| DNA and RNA | enable living organisms to reproduce their complex components from one generation to the next |
| nucleotides are made of | nitrogenous base, a five carbon sugar, and a phosphate group |
| pyrimidine | 6 membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms. cytosine, thymine, and uracil |
| purines | 6 membered ring fused to a five membered ring. adenine, guanine |
| ribose | sugars in nucleotides of RNA |
| deoxyribose | sugars in nucleotides of DNA |
| phosphodiester bond | new base added to sugar of previous base. grow in one direction. n base hangs off at the end |
| why does double helix happen | hydrogen bonds between the nitrogen bases |
| test for lipid | paper test. clear and wet still |
| test for sugar | benedict and heat. turns orangey. |
| test for starch | iodine. turns black |
| test for protein | biuret solution. turns purple. |
| indicators | color change indicates a chemical reaction. detect a presence of a macromolecule. |
Created by:
LittleD331
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