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Physical Geo Final
Shit, bro
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is the most common igneous rock found in the mantle (low silica content) | Peridotite |
| Silicon and Oxygen in a distinct chemical structure - forms minerals like quartz | Silica Tetrahedron |
| A point at 23.5 degrees S where the sun hits directly at 90 degrees during the summer solstice | Tropic of Capricorn |
| Incoming solar radiation measured in w/m^2 (watts per square meter) | Insolation |
| The origin point of an earthquake (at the earth) | Epicenter |
| A line of latitude such as the tropics of cancer and capricorn, the arctic circles and the equator. Where the sun is at a 90 degree angle on the solstices & equinoxes (except for the arctic circle, that area can experience total dark or total light) | Great Circle |
| Determined by degrees clockwise from north. On plane runways, they take off a 0 | Azmuth |
| Number of latitudinal degrees which equal 1 hour | 15 |
| number of meters per km | 1000 |
| number of centimeters per m | 100 |
| number of grams per kg | 1000 |
| radius of the earth in km | 6400 km |
| Direction of rotation of the earth when looking from north pole | counter clockwise |
| Minerals that occur in limestone | Calcite (formed from remains of marine organisms) |
| Fastest type of seismic wave; push/pull motion | P waves |
| Slower type of seismic wave; up/down motion. Can't travel through liquids | S waves |
| Why are igneous rocks better for isotopic dating than sedimentary? | Igneous rocks come directly from the inner earth and reach a closed state when they cool. Sedimentary rocks are a conglomerate of many different-aged rocks |
| How would a 19th century mariner determine lat/long? | Astrolabe, sextant, compass or the stars |
| What is the rock cycle? | |
| Through which city does the prime meridian run? | Greenwich, England |
| How many minutes are there in 1 degree? | 6 minutes |
| Measurement clockwise relative to north | Bearing |
| What is caused by the sun's rotational axis? | Seasons |
| Dates of the Solstices? | March 21, June 21, Sept 22, Dec 21 |
| Where does the sun hit at 90 degrees during the winter? 23.5 degrees S | Tropic of Capricorn |
| Where does the sun hit at 90 degrees during the summer? 23.5 degrees N | Tropic of Cancer |
| Solar declination | Latitude of subsolar point |
| Latitudinal bands that run north to south | Meridians |
| Longitudinal bands that run east to west | Parallells |
| Deductive reasoning ≠ ? | Data |
| all inputs = outputs ->(surface area x average depth)->all outputs | Steady State |
| amount of material m^3/ flux, which is input OR output (m^3/day) = #days | Residence Time |
| difference between highest and lowest points in a region | Topographic relief |
| total relief/radius (dimensionless number) | Relief ratio |
| naturally occurring inorganic crystalline solid with a definite chemical composition and characteristic physical properties | Mineral |
| O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Na, K | Big 8 elements (98% of surface rocks contain) |
| Where is it possible for there to be total light/total darkness? | Arctic Circle |
| Which mineral contains Si and O2? | Quartz |
| cooling of magma, evaporation of a briny liquid, precipitation from a fluid | Ways of forming Minerals |
| How most rocks are born | birth by volcano |
| fibrous silicate mineral with fireproofing qualities. Commercial name. Refers to Chrysotile, which is safe, or Crocidolite which is dangerous. | Asbestos |
| surface process that physically disrupts and chemically changes rocks. Like landslides. Weathered, transported, deposited | Weathering |
| Turning things to stone. | Lithification |
| Transformed in solid state. recrystalize but don't necessarily melt | Metamorphic rocks |
| Darker rocks are usually denser, lighter rocks are lighter | Darker rocks |
| Mass g/Volume cm^3 | Density cm^-3 |
| Boundary between different types of rocks | Geologic contacts |
| Sedimentary rock | Conglomorate |
| older rock in a younger rocks | Clast |
| Processes that fault and fold rocks | Deformation |
| Well foliated metamorphic rock composed of abundant mica derived from sedimentary rock | Schist |
| course-grained, igneous rock with high silica content | Granite |
| 14C -> 14N + heat. 14 C is the parent 14 N is the daughter | Carbon 14 dating |
| P=e/lambda^t lambda is the decay constant. P is the amount of parent. t is time. e is an operator, base of natural log. | Radioactive decay |
| 14C = 5,730^235 | Half life of carbon 14 |
| 704 million years | Half life of Uranium |
| 0.693/half life Time = (1/lambda)xLn(D/P+1) | Decay constant |
| igneous rocks good. sedimentary rocks bad. | Isotopic dating |
| most common igneous rock, loaded with iron and magnesium, low silica content (fine grained extrusive/volcanic rock with a low silica content. dark in color) | Basalt |
| Shield, Cindercone/Stratovolcano, Pyroclastic | Types of volcanoes |
| A piece/fragment | Clast |
| More viscus lava, more silica, might have pyroclastic explosion. Cindercone. | Strato |
| Determined by quantity of dissolved gas + viscosity of magma | Nature of eruption/type of volcano |
| volcanic mudflow. | Lahar |
| Time between P and S waves shows what? | Distance from Epicenter |
| What truncates rocks on both sides and are straight lines? | Faults |
| Metamorphic rock derived from metamorphism of mudstone | Slate |
| What type of rock is well foliated? | Metamorphic rock |
| What type of rock is dated by fossils? | Sedimentary rock |
| Preserved remains of ancient organisms | Fossils |
| The deeper you go, the more dense the rocks are and the faster the waves can move. Because of this, seismic waves follow what kind of path? | Curved |
| liquid core. crust 30-70km, 0-10 over ocean, mantle ~2900km | S wave shadow zone |
| What type of mineral is the mantle mostly made up of? | Peridotite |
| What is the crust mostly made up of? | Granite and Basalt |
| What type of mineral is the core mostly made of? | Fe & N |
| common igneous rock, low silica content, dense, Fe and Mg | Peridotite |
| Point on the earth's surface where the sun's rays hit perpendicularly, or, at 90 degrees | Subsolar point |
| north pole 90 degrees from the equator. at the north pole you'd look right up and see the north star directly overhead. So the star is at 90 degrees and the latitude is also 90 degrees. At the equator both the star and lat are 0. | North Star location over North Pole |
| Divides daylight/darkness on a globe | Circle of Illumination |
| latitude of the subsolar point | Solar Declination |
| The ability to do work, force applied through a distance (measured in Joules) | Energy |
| energy/time (measured in Watts) | Power |
| Highest possible solar angle for Williamsburg. Because the highest overall is 90, but that's at the equator. We're 13.5 away from the equator, so we subtract that from 90 and get the answer. | 76.5 |
| Silicon + Oxygen + Fe + Mg | Olivine |
| Surface processes that physically disrupt and chemically change rocks | Weathering |
| weathered, transported, deposited | Sediment Deposition |
| Mass/Volume | Density |
| time required for half of the original parent atoms to decay to their daughter | Half Life |
| rate at which isotope decays | Decay Constant |
| Common, wide volcano made from basaltic lava | Shield Volcano |
| Pointy tipped like Mt. Fuji, with alternating layers of lava flows and pyroclastic deposits. Lava is more viscous, higher silica content. | Strato Volcano / Composite Volcano |
| Avalanche of rock material, hot ash and gas. Moves real fast, kills a lot of people, you can't run from it. | Pyroclastic Flows |
| Small in size with steep slopes. Pyroclastic material falls out of it. | Cinder Cones |
| What types of rocks are well foliated? | Metamorphic |
| = mass/volume | Density |
| underwater topography | bathmetry |
| mountains under water | Midocean ridge |
| crust, mantle, core | Chemical classification |
| lithosphere, asthenosphere (weak, tiny bit of melt), mesosphere | Physical classification |
| acceleration due to gravity 9.8m/s^2 | g |
| caused by displaced ocean floor | Tsunami |
| Diverging, Converging, Transform | Major plate boundaries |
| plates spreading apart. Like midocean ridges. | Diverging plate boundary |
| plates pushing together (oceanic/oceanic, oceanic/continental, continental/continental) | Converging plate boundary |
| plates sliding past each other Like San Andreas fault | Transform plate boundary |
| creates trenches and island arcs | Oceanic/oceanic convergence |
| creates trenches and volcanic mountain ranges | Oceanic/continental convergence |
| creates mountain ranges | Continental/continental convergence |
| What kind of ocean crust subducts? | Old, cold and dense |
| plumes (originating at core/mantle boundary) of magma that randomly shoot out, volcanic places not on plate boundaries | Hot spots |
| What are the driving forces of plate tectonics? | Mantle convection and Gravity |
| Hot on the inside, not as hot on the outside, heat will flow to where it's cooler, then convection happens. Gravity pulls the cold old dense stuff down. decay of funky radioactive isotopes in core - why the earth is hot. Like a lava lamp awwwwwww yissssss | Mantle Convection facts |
| processes that cover/alter/destroy bedrock | Pc |
| processes that expose bedrock | Pe |
| 1km = 1000m, but 1km^2 = (1000m x 1000m) | 1km^2 ≠ 1000 m^2 |
| look at 10/12 slide 10. also 10/24 slide 7. | Plotting solar insulation curves |
| a flat topped sea mount | Guyot |
| natural terrestrial surface layer containing minerals, organic matter and living organisms | Soil |
| is a mineral typically found in soil. doesn't have sodium | Clay |
| Why there is carbon dioxide in soil | Vegetation and Critters |
| fine grained limestone | Chalk |
| fertile, dark, organic-rich soil | Black Belt |
| type of metamorphic rock. granite in little dikes, just started to melt | Gneiss |
| Climate (does it rain a lot?) Topography (is it steep or flat?) Tectonic environment (lot of tectonic uplift = more exposed rocks) | Factors that influence Pc vs Pe |
| spontaneous movement of earth materials down steep slopes due to gravity | Mass wasting |
| sodium chloride, chemical sedimentary rock | Rock salt |
| metamorphosed limestone | Marble |
| physical and chemical | Types of weathering |
| removal of stuff (unlike weathering which is actual change of stuff) | Erosion |
| volume of water flowing down the river at any moment (rate/time) | stream discharge |
| volume/time. Q=VxA where V=average velocity and A=cross sectional area | Discharge measurement |
| width x depth | Area |
| where water comes from at base flow | Groundwater/Hydraulic system |
| when discharge exceeds the bank full discharge | Flood |
| (total years + 1)/rank | Recurrance Interval |
| (1/recurrance interval) x 100 | Percent probability/year |
| another way to display the solar declination curve | Analemma |
| stuff on the riverbed that gets moved. like rocks. | Bedload |
| like dirt | Suspended load |
| like ions and stuff | Dissolved load |
| Floodplain, point bar (inside bottom of S), cutbank (outside bottom of S) | Anatomy of stream systems |
| Steepness, deposition, erosion | Factors that control the size of the bedload (whether sand or boulders) |
| both deposition and erosion | Meandering streams |
| local regions in a stream where the gradient is steeper than it is either upstream or downstream (like waterfalls) | Knickpoints |
| Dendritic, Parallel, Trellis, Rectangular, Radial, Annular | Stream Drainage Patterns |
| Wind direction in northern hemisphere | Counterclockwise |
| intense low pressure system | Cyclone |
| Where do trade winds occur? | Between the two tropics |
| Where do westerlies occur? | Between tropics and arctic circles |
| Which way does water flow? | Down a pressure gradient |
| Hydraulic gradient of the water table (slope), permeability of the materials through which the groundwater flows | Agents that control velocity of groundwater flow |
| % of non-mineral space in a rock, soil or sediment (void space) | Porosity |
| extent to which fluids can pass through a rock, sediment or soil | Permiability |
| What happens if the rate of pumping > rate of recharge? | Collapse/Sinkholes |
| Location of central pivot irrigation | The High Plains |
| 6 degrees C/km. temp change in moving air. Rate at which an air parcel temperature decreases with an increase in altitude. constant on planet earth | Wet Adiabatic Rate |
| 10 degrees C/km. temp change in moving air. Rate at which an air parcel temperature decreases with an increase in altitude. constant on planet earth | Dry Adiabatic Rate |
| ~2 degrees C/km. as we go higher up in the sky, since the temperature changes, the dew point goes down | Dewpoint Lapse Rate |
| 8 degrees C/km. Varies from place to place. Temp change in still air. Rate at which temperature decreases with increase in altitude | Environmental Temperature Lapse Rate |
| permeable rocks/materials that hold water (sand, gravel, porous limestone, fractured rocks) | Aquifers |
| materials impermeable to water (clay, mudstone, shale, unfractured igneous and metamorphic rocks) Otherwise known as confining units. | Aquicludes |
| makes acid rain. erodes limestone. cation and anion end up in the water. chemical weathering | Results of CO2 in atmosphere |
| landscape dominated by features formed from limestone dissolution and underlain by cavern systems | Karst |
| submerging, islands, marsh, estuaries, barrier islands | Submergant Coasts |
| sun is warming up ground surface, ground heats air above it. closest = longest time thats transpired since there was any insolation. | Daily cycle of air temperature |
| "weight" is a function of gravity, mass x acceleration due to gravity. Measured in psi (pounds per square inch) | Weight and Atmospheric Pressure |
| air flows from area of high pressure to low pressure, since its a fluid. This is wind. | Air flow |
| lines of equal pressure. | Isobars |
| pressure gradient force. like water running downhill, should run right down the gradient | PGF |
| apparent deflection of moving materials in a rotating reference frame | The Coriolis Effect |
| measures the Coriolis effect? | Trebuchet |
| units of pressure | millibars |
| low pressure system = not a lot of wind | Widely spread isobars |
| amount of water vapor in the air | Humdity |
| mass of water vapor/mass of air. figured out by drawing a straigh horizontal line from the amount of water in the air to the g/kg | Specific humidity |
| ratio of content/capacity (given as a %) | Relative humidity |
| amount of water actually in the air | Content |
| maximum amount of water vapor the air could hold at a given temperature | Capacity |
| air filled to capacity (leads to clouds, fog, precipitation) | Saturation |
| temperature at which a given parcel of air becomes saturated | Dew point temperature |
| body of air with a specific temperature and humidity. Temperature increases, density decreases, parcel rises. temperature decreases, density increases, parcel sinks | Air parcels |
| ability of air parcel to stay in the same place. determined by difference in temperature of parcel and surrounding air | Stability |
| change in temperature of a material caused entirely by a change in pressure. change that occurs without heat exchange between surrounding environment and air parcel | Adiabatic Process |
| aggregation of water droplets and ice suspended in air | Clouds |
| weather happens in the troposphere. Not much oxygen because of decreasing pressure. Airplanes like to fly in the tropopause | Where weather occurs |
| North Wind | Boreas |
| from SW, northern Africa, blows sand into sw europe. | Sirocco |
| the nuclei must be some kind of particle so water can attach to it | Raindrops |
| What kind of air makes weather? | Unstable air |
| Cirrus, Cumulus, Stratus | 3 types of clouds |
| almost all ice, not precipitation | Cirrus |
| bad weather, cold and rainy | Stratus |
| PUFFY AS A MOTHERFUCKER | Cumulus |
| leading edge of air masses with different densities (temperature and/or moisture) | Weather Fronts |
| Development of cumulus (convecting clouds), intense violent weather over small area, passes quickly | Cold air into warm air |
| Development of stratus clouds, steady rain over larger area, travels slowly | Warm air into cold air |
| Warm/moist air, intense solar heating causes air to rise, convectional ppt, development of low pressure at surface, air flows toward equator. ITCZ- inter tropical convergence zone | Equator |
| (between equator and tropics) In the subtropics the dryer air cools and descends. creates regions of higher pressure at the surface. low ppt. energy transferred away from the equator | Hadley Cells |
| blow toward equator and FROM THE FUCKING EAST | Trade winds |
| blow FROM the west. OH NO. NOT TOWARD THE WEST. THAT WOULD BE TOO FUCKING SIMPLE. | Westerlies |
| long term average of weather. temp change, precipitation | Climate |
| Mediterranean climate. Warm to hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters. | 40 degrees |
| 4.56 MY (meteorites) | Age of the Earth |
| Growth rate (r) = (P2 - P1)/P1 P2 = P1e^(rt) t = Ln(P2/P1)/r look at 11/28 slide 22 | Growth rate (r) |
| 9/10 growing seasons have been longer in the last 10 years than in the last 100. Climate from 21,770 years ago figured out by the dismal swamp peat bog drill core. | Is Wburg climate changing? |
| Pollen as a proxy for paleoclimate. | How to get climate info |
| Male microgametophyte of seed plants. Pollen -> Vegetation Type -> Climate | Pollen |
| study of pollen to better understand paleoecology/paleoclimate | Palynology |
| huge random rocks, made of granite and gneiss | Erratics |
| ocean provides moderating influence, warm summer, cool winter, relatively narrow temp range, ppt throughout year. Not every place near the ocean has a maritime climate. | Maritime oceanic climate |
| permanent body of land ice that flows outward and downslope under its own weight | Glacier |
| move downslope | Ice Flows |
| U shape in mountain ranges. Also scratches on rocks. | Evidence for glacial erosion |
| unsorted sediment deposited by glaciers | Till |
| Less solar insolation = colder temperatures. Cooler summers. | Why an ice age? |
| measure stream discharge | Gauging stations |
| For global warming - work the same way as the ones that predicted sandy | Future climate models |
| Will kill vegetation and fuck with aquifers in lowlying areas like Norfolk. Bangladesh will be underwater. | Sea level rise |
| from irrigated agricultural land to desert. drought and desertification | Precipitation change |
| oil/petroleum, natural gas, coal | Fossil fuels |
| an organic rich (high in carbon) sedimentary rock composed of preserved plant remains. Peat -> lignite -> coal | Coal |
| emissions, erosion (mountaintop removal), water supply poisoning (acid mine drainage) | Env issues with coal |
| a liquid derived from the preserved remains of tiny marine organism (organic compound) (phytoplankton) | Petroleum |
| Shows a peak in oil consumption/production and a gradual fall | MK Hubbert's Curve (1956) |
| sometimes, instead of fossilizing, organic matter becomes gas and gets trapped in shale | Gas |
| Fucking motherfucking biocides kill EVERYTHING. | NO FRACKING WAY |
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