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kmnmicrofinal
final
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Horizontal Gene transfer | Creates recombinants in prokaryotes. Opens up for more possibility for genetic diversity |
| Horizontal gene transfer (ways) | transduction, conjugation, transduction |
| Transduction | Bacteriophage |
| Conjugation | Conjugative plasmid via cell-cell contact (pilus) |
| Transformation | Uptake of free naked DNA by a competent cell, followed by incorporation o DNA into the recipient cell's genome |
| Why does griffith experiment prove transformation | DNA from dead pathogen, virulence actors, recombine with R strain making it pathogenic |
| Virulence | provides cell with proteins that make cells more pathogenic |
| Auxotroph | An organism, such as a strain of bacteria, that has lost the ability to synthesize certain substances required for its growth and metabolism as the result of mutational changes. |
| Episome | A plasmid that can interate itself into the bacterial chromosome by recombination. Contains oRIt: origin of transfer. Example: F plasmid |
| Methylation | mechanism to defend own DNA from restriction enzymes by placing methyl, so restriction enzymes cant recognize sequence |
| T4 phage | Lytic cycle |
| Lytic cyle | 1) Phage DNA is inserted into bacterial cell 2) Host DNA degrades 3) Formation of capsid 4) Bacteriophage bursts out killing cell |
| Phage absorption to bacterial cell wall: specific sites | membrane protein in the lps Polysaccharides in LPS Teichoic acid in gram positive Flageella Pilli |
| Lysozyme | loosens host's cell wallthat dissolves the outer membrane, peptidoglycan later and cytoplasmic membrane creating a hole that DNA enters the cell |
| Restriction enzymes | Digest DNA. Recognize specific sequences and cut DNA. Sequences labeled with methyl group will not be recognized and not cut. |
| T4 phages and glucose | lable there own DNA with glucose and restriction enzyme is unable to recognize t4 DNA. Making it able to defend own DNA |
| Why are virus DNA so short? | Use host cell machinery to replicate dna Temperate phage Temperate phage can choose between lytic and lysogenic phathways |
| Prophage | Viral DNA that sits on host chromosome |
| Lambaphage | lysogenic temperate |
| Induction | Excisdes itself and undergoes lytic pathways. Can be triggered when cell is about to die |
| Plaque | areas with bacteriophage , zones of e. coli that aren't growing |
| Generalized transduction | Bacterial chromosome chops up into pieces. During packaging an piece of dna THAT IS GOOD SIZE CAN ENTER THE PHAGE aBLE TO BE TRANSFERRED INTO A NEW host. Any part of host dna |
| Specialized transduction | Lysogenic phage. Viral DNA is cut and there is a miscut that contains both viral and bacterial DNA. New DNA head carries this Dna. Special because DNA next to the prophage is packaged into the viral head. |
| Generalized transduction | Lysogenic page DNA from very specific region of host chromosome replaces viral genes Genomic dna MUST RECOMBINE WITH NEW HOST GENOME. Transducing viral particles become more defective due to lost of genes |
| Bacterial Plasmids | Small autonomosly replicating DNA molecules. -usually circular -episome |
| Curing | Loss of plasmid from host |
| F-plasmid | Conjugative plasmid |
| Function of plasmid | Conjugative, resistance, bacteriocin, virulence, symbiosis, catabolic |
| Conjugative Plasmid | Genes for pilus formation and plasmid transfer to recipient cell |
| Virulence plasmid | confer resistance to host defense mechanism |
| importance of plasmids | environmental adaptation: genetic flexibility to cell with less cost Selective pressure and evolution: plasmids rapidly spread to many species to allow survival |
| F+ | Contains plasmid and pillus |
| F- | Recipient of plasimid |
| F+ x F- | F+ plasmid replicates and the copy gets into the f- cell forming 2 f+ |
| Integration | When plasmid integrates into chromosome |
| HFR x F- | F factor is integrated into its chromosomes. Donor genes are transferred into recipient cells. A complete copy of F factor is usually no formed. HFR cell and F- recombinant |
| Whole chromosome never makes over | Length of dna depends on time on conjugation, and strength of conjugation bridge |
| Retro viruses | HIV RNA virus that replicates in a host cell using its reverse transcriptase enzyme to produce DNA from its RNA genome RNA → DNA → RNA → protein |
| What is an operon? | Gene and all the regulatory sequences. Genes belonging to the same pathway. Promotor Operator Activating binding site |
| Two types of gene expreion | Transcription and translation |
| Which genes are expressed all the time | Housekeeping genes- ATP synthesis and dna repair |
| Enzyme level | Needs to regulated quickly. Gene is transcribed but translation is shut down |
| Transcriptional level | Gene isn't transcribed at all saving energy |
| Operator | Sequence where repressor binds Starts or halts transcription by binding factors |
| Repressor | Blocks RNA polymerase |
| Promotor | Sequence where RNA polymerase binds |
| Regulator | Requires binding o small molecules or effectors to bind operator |
| Genes in an operon | usually genes that are transcribed together are usually used in the same pathway |
| Example of enzyme repression | Arginin operon is negatively regulated by arginine. |
| Arginine | Corepressor that binds onto the repressor that binds onto the operator stopping transcription |
| Example of enzyme induction | Lac operon is regulated by glucose and lactose. |
| STORY OF LAC OPERON | genes for lactose metabolism not transcribed during growth in glucose. repressor bound at operator of lac gene operon |
| When there is no glucose and lactose is present | Lactose operon is expressed alLactose as a inducer binds onto the repressor and repressor falls off. CAMP binds to cap and binds onto the abs that helps the Rna ploymerase to bind onto the promotor |
| What happens when arginine is in the media? | Arginine acts as a corerepressor and binds onto the repressor, which then binds onto the operator blocking transcripion |
| Two types of negative control | Enzyme induction and enzyme repression |
| Is adenylate cyclase phosphorylate if glucose is present in cell? | Glucose is phosphorylated an inactive unphosphorylated binds onto lactose permease. Stopping CAMP production and lactose infflux into cell |
| Glucose directly affects | CAMP levels of the cell |
| CAMP binds onto | CAP |
| CAP/CAMP complex binds onto | the activator binding site helping RNA polymerase bind onto the promotor |
| When does cAMP levels increase | no glucose |
| when does cAMP levels decrease | Glucose present |
| Allolactose | inducer of repressor. When it binds onto repressor the complex falls off and allow RNA polymerase to continue transcription. |
| Group translocation | Phosphotransferase |
| If there is glucose present in the media | no CAMP and lactose permease is blocked |
| Regulon | multiple operons responding to a common regulatory protein |
| Global control system | On signal affect many operons. |
| Can attenuation occur in Eukaryotes | No. Transcription and translation occurs in two places. Not coupled |
| Ribosome stalls on position 1 | Forms 2:3 antiterminator loop |
| 2:3 antiterminator loop | Low tryp levels. where transcription for biosynthesis tryp enzymes required to load tRNA for ribosomes. Ribosome stalls and RNA polymerase moves on |
| 3:4 Terminator loop | High tryp levels. Area 2 is covered. Stops transcription because RNA polymerase falls off. |
| Message is relayed on the... | shape of mRNA molecule |
| When does attenuation occurs | Important when end product is low for fine tuning |
| Riboswitch transcription level | Instead of the ribosome, RFN (end product of biosynthesis) will attach to mRNA and form a terminator loop and transcription will stop. |
| Riboswitch translation level | Shine-Dalgamo Ligand binds onto mRNA and loop forms kicking off ribosome. End product binds on the RNA formin a loop, SD sequence is part of the look and ribosome is unable to see it |
| Shape of mRNA molecule determine | whether or not the ribosome can bind or not. |
| Regulatory RNA | doesn't make sense/ code for protein Antisense mRNA |
| Antisense regulation | Translation regulation antisense rna bind onto mRNA forming a double stranded RNA which is unable to be read by ribosome. |
| Sensor kinase | receptor of signal transduction Autophosphorylation- Phosphorylates itself |
| Response regulator | phosphate from sensor kinases is put on response regulator |
| Signal transduction | Chemotaxis |
| Phosphatase | takes off phosphate |
| Quorum sensing | Cell-cell communication |
| Quorum sensing | couples cell density to transcription regulation |
| Acylhomoserine lactone (AHL) | Autoinducer molecule produced by many gram - MO |
| Quorum sensing in Vibrio Fisheri | LuxI gene encodes for LuxI enzyme that makes AHL |
| Auto-inducer | AHL Positive feedback Induces its own production effector molecule |
| Lux-r | Transcriptional acivator Binds onto activator binding site and helps RNA polymerase to find promotor |
| Biofilms | Extracellular matrix and change in attached organism's physiology protects from harmful agents such as UV and antibiotics. |
| Sloughing off | Well developed biofilm slough off as chucks and new biofilm is made |
| Metabolism of biofilm | Differenct from top and bottom |
| Planktonic cell | Free floating |
| Biofilm infection | Immunesystems try to help but doesn't effect biofilm and immunesytem harms the area around instead |
| Virulence | quantitative measure of pathogenecity |
| Biofilm formation | Attach to conditioned surface and release polysaccharides, proteins, and DNA Interactions occur among the attached organisms |
| Treatments of biofilm | PHysical removal Antibiotics on surfaces Keep administration of antibiotic |
| Why was the host susceptible to pathogen | Defense mechanism of host- nutrition, genetic predisposition and stress play a role in host susceptibility to infection - Pathogenicity of pathogen |
| Pathogenicity | Ability to cause disease |
| Virulence | quantitative measure of the pathogenicity or likelyhood of causing disease |
| Virulence factors | Properties that enable a MO to establish itself on or within a host of a particular species and enhance its potential to cause disease |
| Virulence factor | Portal of entry, attachment, Invasion, Outcome |
| What makes a bacteria virulent | Pathogenecity island. |
| Pathogenecity Island | Chunk of DNA with multiple genes to make it pathogenic. Next to eachother in DNA and encode for virulence factors. On a plasmid and can be transferred between bacteria. Shigella to commensal Ecoli to turn to pathogenic ecoli |
| Multiple portal entry | Virulence factor Wounds mouth specific infects certain areas |
| Attachment: surface strutures | Virulence factor Frimbriae Slime layer or glycocalyx or capsul Anything on surface of MO |
| Invasion | Virulence factor Antiphagocytic affects- escape immunesystem and phagocytosis is not working Extracellular enzymes: Enzymes that fight phagocytic cells Endo and exotoins |
| Endotoxins | Gram negative- affects outer member and LPS layer lipid A toxin. Death leads to exposure of lipid A toxins. Leads to inflammation and fever |
| Exotoxin | Gram positive. Chlostridium spore formers -tetanus and botulism |
| Toxins | part of invasion virulence factor involving hemolysis. Enzymes digest red blood cells |
| Outcome | Recovery or necrosis |
| Necrosis | Tissue damage. Immune systeme fighting against medical biofilm |
| Levels of bacteria pathogens | Obligate intracellular, facultative intracellular, predominately intracellular |
| Naked virus | Capsid and nucleic acid |
| Enveloped virus | Envelope, spike, capsid, nucleic acid |
| Absorption | 1. The virus attaches to its host cell by specific binding of its spikes to cell receptors |
| Penetration | 2, The virus is engulfed into a vesicle and its envolope is uncoated |
| Uncoating | 3. Evelope is uncoated and viral RNA is freed into cytoplasm |
| Synthesis | 4. Replication can protein production. Under the control of viral genes, cell synthesizes the basic components of new viruses: RNA molecules, capsomers and spikes |
| Assembly | 3. Viral spike proteins are inserted into cell membrane for the viral envelope; nucleocapsid is formed from RNA and capsomers |
| Release | 6. Enveloped virus bud off of membrane carrying away an envelope with spikes. This complete virus is ready to infect another cell. |
| Chemolithotrophs | Chemotrophs that require inorganic material: F3 2+, NH3, H2S, NO2-, H2 |
| Thermophile | Love heat 60 degrees |
| Acidophile | Below ph5.5 |
| Alkalophile | Above p 8.5 |
| Psychophile | Cold 4 degrees |
| Halophile | 6-15-30% NaCl mild- extreme |
| How do you demonstrate oxygen requirements | Thioglycollate broth |
| HFR | F plasmid integrated into host chromosome. High frequency recombination. Donor DNA contains plasmid and host cell |
| In conjugation, the donor chromosome is transferred a | The donor chromosome is transferred as single-stranded DNA. RNA is not involved. |
| The donor cell DNA is integrated into the recipient cell’s DNA by homologous recombination. | True |
| In conjugation of an HFr cell and an F- cell, the entire genome of the HFr cell is usually transferred to the recipient cell | Correct: Only a portion of the donor genome is transferred, not including the entire F plasmid. The cells do not remain in contact long enough for the whole genome to transfer. |
| HFr refers to | a cell in which the F plasmid has been integrated into the cell chromosome |
| The F plasmid | codes for making the F pilus |
| The F pilus | is a protein appendage on the F+ donor that attaches to specific receptors on the cell wall of the recipient |
| When an F+ donor gives an F plasmid to an F- recipient | both become F+ |
| Contact is required between an F+ and an F- cell for conjugation to occur. | True |
| When F+ cells are mixed with F- cells, eventually all the cells will become F+. | True |
| A bacteriophage is a | virus that infects a bacterium |
| When a bacteriophage carrying bacterial DNA infects a new bacterium | If bacterial DNA gets inside viral protein coat, bacterial DNA will be transferred to the next bacterium infected. it transfers bacterial DNA from the donor bacterium to the recipient bacterium |
| A phage particle may carry pieces of bacterial DNA from one bacterium to another inside a viral protein coat. | True |
| When a recipient bacterial cell receives bacterial DNA via transduction | the new DNA is replicated every time the recipient multiplies The new DNA can integrate with the recipient’s DNA and remain there, replicating along with the recipient DNA. |
| When the defective phage enters a new bacterial cell | both phage DNA and bacterial DNA integrate into the chromosome of the new cell host |
| In the process of specialized transduction | only a few specific genes from one bacterial cell are transferred to the second bacterial host by a phage |
| In specialized transduction | only bacterial genes near the site of integration of the phage DNA can be transduced |
| The lambda phage DNA always integrates into the host DNA in the same specific site. | True |
| Sometimes a piece of bacterial DNA near the specific site of insertion stays attached to the phage DNA, and a piece of phage DNA remains behind. | True |
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kmnagai
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