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Biol 111 Post Exam 3
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What affects diffusion? (3) | Distance, concentration, temperature |
| What are the main large & small vessels that go away from the heart? | Arteries (lg); arteriols (sm) |
| What are the main large & small vessels that go back to the heart? | Veins (lg); venules (sm) |
| What are capillaries? | Vessels for gas and fluid exchange |
| What is the overall flow of human circulation? | artery --> arteriole --> capillary --> venule --> vein |
| What is the purpose of precapillary sphincters? | Selectively regulate the flow of blood into the capillaries |
| Differentiate between the pulmonary and systematic circuits | Pulminary (lungs): deoxygenated blood in right ventricle --> lungs --> left atrium of heart; Systematic (circuit): oxygenated blood from left ventricle --> tissues produce CO2 ---> right atrium of the heart |
| Pulminary _______ carry O2 poor blood and pulminary _________ carry O2 rich blood | arteries; veins |
| Systematic _______ carry O2 poor blood and systematic _________ carry O2 rich blood | veins; arteries |
| In the lungs the pressure of O2 is ____ & CO2 is ____ | high; low |
| In the tissues the pressure of O2 is ____ & CO2 is ____ | low; high |
| The blood vessels are composed of what 5 things? | Tissue layers: arteries, arteriols, capillaries, veins, & venules |
| What differentiates the veins/venules from the arteries/arteriols? | A's: thicker, 2 layers of elastic fibers; V's: valves to prevent backflow |
| How does gas exchange occur in the lungs? | Bronchi and bronchioles lead to the alveoli which are one cell thick so gasses can diffuse across surgace |
| At lung capillaries CO2 diffuses ___ and O2 diffuses ___; at tissue capillaries CO2 diffuses ___ and O2 diffuses ___ | out, in; in, out |
| What is the O2 carrier in vertebrates | Hemoglobin |
| Hemoglobin is a large complex protein composed of what? | 4 polypeptide chains (2 alpha & 2 beta) |
| A plot of %O2 saturation vs. PO2 shows what? | sigmoidal shapes because 1O2 binding slowly changes structer, 2nd binds faster, last binds slower because only one heme site left |
| What is P50? | The PO2 level at which 50% of the hemoglobin is saturated with O2 (2 O2 given off for every 1 molecule) |
| How does a graph of %O2 saturation vs. PO2 compare in fetus vs. adults | Left shifted because saturates at lower pressure |
| What does a decrease in pH do to hemoglobin? | Alters the shape; leads to a dissociation curve shift right (Bohr shift) |
| What are the 3 ways CO2 is carried in the blood (Least to most common)? | dissolved in plasma; bound to hemoglobin; dissociated in red blood cells |
| How and why is bicarbonate formed from CO2 & H2O? | In red blood cells: CO2 + H2O --> (carbonic anhydrase enzyme) H2CO3 --> HCO3- + H+ |
| What are 3 effects of carbonic anydrase being active in a red blood cell? | CO2 removal, Pco2 in blood lowered, Co2 diffuses out of tissue and into blood |
| How is bicarbonate converted back to CO2? | CO2 diffuses out of blood and into the lung, removing reactant and disrupting equilibrium; shifts reaction back to the left |
| Why does plant circulation work? | Water's ability to hydrogen bond to itself, high specific heat, and high surface tension |
| Differentiate between the xylem and phloem? | Xylem: dead & conduct water/minerals, one directional; Phloem: living & conduct sugars, bidirectional |
| Define osmosis | Diffusion of water across a semi-permeable one |
| What is the purpose of water potential | Predicts water movement in osmosis/ A measure of the osmotic strength of a solution |
| Pure water has a solute water potential of __ and when you add solute, the water potential _____ | 0; decreases |
| Water moves from _____ water potential to _____ water potential | high; low |
| Define pressure potential | Turgur pressure against cell wall |
| How do you calculate total water potential? | (Pressure potential) + (Solute water potential) |
| Why does plant circulation work? | Water's ability to hydrogen bond to itself, high specific heat, and high surface tension |
| Differentiate between the xylem and phloem? | Xylem: dead & conduct water/minerals, one directional; Phloem: living & conduct sugars, bidirectional |
| Define osmosis | Diffusion of water across a semi-permeable one |
| What is the purpose of water potential | Predicts water movement in osmosis/ A measure of the osmotic strength of a solution |
| Pure water has a solute water potential of __ and when you add solute, the water potential _____ | 0; decreases |
| Water moves from _____ water potential to _____ water potential | high; low |
| Define pressure potential | Turgur pressure against cell wall |
| How do you calculate total water potential? | (Pressure potential) + (Solute water potential) |
| What are the 5 layers of plant roots? | Epidermis(outer), Endodermis(inner), Pericycle(btwn endo& vascular tissure), Cortex(epi to endo), Stele(core) |
| What are the 3 pathways of water uptake in plants? | apoplastic symplastic, transmembrane |
| How does the apoplastic water uptake pathway work? | Nonselective; water taken up by imbibition and moves between cell walls until stopped by Casperian Strip |
| How does the symplastic water uptake pathway work? | Selective; minerals actively transported into cells & water by osmosis, decreasing solute water potential & water moves via plasmodesmata connecting junctions |
| How does the transmembrane water uptake pathway work? | Moves through cell membranes and internal vacuoles |
| What is the casperian strip? | A waxy fat, suberin, that separates the stele and cortex in plant roots |
| How does water enter the xylem? | Moves from pericylcle to xylem via osmosis |
| How does water move up the xylem? | Some push from below due to root pressure (guttation); Main source pulling from above |
| Describe the Tension/Cohesion Model for moving water up the xylme | Transpiration(water loss through stomata)-->Cohesion(H-bonds let water pulls itself up and stick to xylem walls) |
| What are guard cells and their function? | Control gas exchange in plants; Create pores (stomate/stoma) where CO2 can enter and O2 can exit |
| How is water controlled in guard cells? | 1. Abcisic acid hormone produced when soil is dry, causing guard cells to lose water and stoma closes preventing evaporative water loss; 2. If CO2 decreases, K+ pumps in, decreasing water potential so water moves in and opens stoma |
| Transport in the phloem occurs from ___________ (source) to ____________ (sink) | photosynthetic area; nonphotosynthetic area |
| Describe the pressure bulk flow model of transport into the phloem | In source, sucrose actively transports in-->lower water potential -->translocation; In sink, sucrose actively transports out --> raises water potential --> water leaves & carries sugar with it |
| Define homeostasis & set point | Ability to maintain constant internal environment despite fluctuating external conditions; level at which a state is regulated |
| What are the 4 different types of signalling molecules? | Autocrine, paracrine, local(neurotransmitters/histamines), distant(hormones/growth factors) |
| Define hormones and what they affect in the body | Chemicals secreted into blood for transport to a distant target; Affect growth, metabolism, development, or homeostasis |
| What is the endocrine gland and its target? | Ductless gland that secretes a hormone traveling through blood; targets any organ with receptors for the hormone |
| What is the hypothalamus | Brain structure involved in coordination and regulation of body processes |
| Differentiate between the posterior and anterior pituitary | Posterior: part of CNS, secretes hormones and receives hormones form hypothalamus; Anterior: Not part of CNS, synthesizes & secretes hormones in response to signals from hypothalamus (indirect) |
| Briefly outline your bodies stress response. | Hypothalamus secretes CRH --> Anterior pituitary releases ACTH --> Adrenal cortex on kidney secretes cortisol |
| What are the 4 classes of hormones | Steroids(from cholesterol), peptides, proteins, glycoproteins(carb. bounded to polypeptide chain) |
| What is goiter? | Inability to produce thyroid hormones due to lack of iodine causing thyroid to enlarge to try to produce more thyroxine hormones |
| What is negative feedback? | Increase in substance or process that leads to the inhibition of that substance or process to maintain level at set point |
| What is an example of how hormones have antagonistic effects? | Insulin responds to decrease blood glucose while glucagon responds to raise blood glucose |
| What is the "fight or flight response" to suppress insulin and mimic glucose? | Adrenaline-->cAMP-->PKA-->PK-->Glycogen phosphorylase-->glucose released |
| How are hormones related to development? | Control development! ex. Human growth hormone |
| How and when are gonads phenotypically differentiated? | After 6 weeks of development; Wolffian ducts from males & mullerian ducts from females |
| What are endocrine disruptors? | Environmental chemicals that interfere with normal endocrine signalling and mimic the effect of steroid hormones |
| What are the 5 "enemies" to your body? | viruses, bacteria, single cell organisms, multicellular organisms, your own cells |
| Differenitate between parasites and pathogens | Parasite: organism that consumes/kills parts of its host; Pathogens: organism that causes disease |
| What is the cause of an autoimmune disease and two examples? | Caused by immune system attackign its own cells; MS, Type I diabetes, Rheumatoid arthritus, graves |
| What is different about a lymphatic capillary compated to a blood capillary? | One cell think; No pump, depends on contraction to move fluids; takes up excess interstitial fluid and returns it to the bloodstream |
| Unlike red blood cells, white blood cells keep their ____________ | nuclei |
| Function of spleen | Site of red blood cell destruction and blood resevoir |
| Function of red bone marrow | Site of stem cells that become blood cells and lymphocytes |
| Funciton of lymph nodes and tonsils | filter bacterial cells; encapsulated by lymph nodes |
| Function and location of thymus | Naturation of lymphocytes; along trachea |
| What are the 4 types of lymphcytes? | 1. Basophil/mast cells; 2. Machrophge/phagocytes; 3. B cells; 4. T cells |
| Function of basal/ mast cells | quickly release histamine durign inflammation |
| Function of macrophage/phagocytes | engulf and release chemicals to destroy foreign cells |
| B cells are ___________ and involved in ___________ immunity while T cells are _________ and involved in ____________immunity | indirect; humoral(liquid); direct; cell-mediated |
| What are teh 2 types of immune defense? | Nonspecific & specific |
| What is inflammation | A nonspecific response to death or damage to tissues in any region of the body |
| How does inflammation happen (4 steps) | 1. Mast cells release histamines causing capilarries to leak; 2. Leaking capilarries cause swelling & pain; 3. Plasma proteins attack invader & blood clots to form protective wall; 4. Phagocytes kill invaders |
| How do natural killer cells and protective proteins aid in immunity | NONSPECIFIC -- NKC: kill abormal cells by indirect contact causing burst; Prot: enhance other immune responses |
| Specific immune responses respond to ___________. | Antidents |
| Define antigens and 2 examples | Proteins on surface of infection agent recognized as foreign that trigger an appropriate immune response; Rh factor & MHC |
| B cells mount conterattack to antigens by __________________ | producing antibodies |
| How are B cells made | White blood cells from bone marrow |
| Define antibody | y shaped protein secreted on teh surface of B cell into blood in response to anantigenic stimulas that neutralizes the antigen by specifically binding to it |
| __________ are indirect because they don't do the actual killing in an immune response while ____________ are direct. | B cells; T cells |
| Differentiate between the 2 types of B cells | Effector: respond emediately; Memory: rest in lymphatic system and respond quickly when same antagen reenters body |
| Differentiate between vaccines and aquired immunity | Vaccine: long term antigen containing that elicits immune response to produce and store proper antibody; Aquired immunity: short term protection due to direct aquisition of antibodies |
| How does the body destroy pathogens that are hidden within cells? | T cells must come in direct contact |
| Differentiate between helper annd cytotoxic T cells | Helper: bind to antigen-presenting macrophages & secrete protein to activate B or other T cells; Cytotoxic: recognize own infected cells and cause them to lyse |
| What types of nitrogen waste occur in multicellular organisms? | Ammonia, Uric acid (solid), Urea (liquid) |
| The __________ system processes and concentrates waste and toxic substances, specifically in the ______________ | Excretory system; kidney |
| What are the 3 functions of the kidney? | 1. Filtration of blood - excreted filtrate is urine; 2. Reabsorption of water & solutes from filtrate back to blood; 3. Secretion of toxic substances into filtrate from blood |
| _____________ is a ball of capillaries with high pressure in the kidneys that force liquids and solids out | Glamarulus |
| The ____________ is the processing unit of the kidney. | nephron |
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jkmccord11
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