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Sensory Physiology
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| sense air or water-borne molecules; taste and smell | Chemoreception |
| sense small mechanical changes within receptor cells (‘hair cells’); hearing and equilibrium | Mechanoreception |
| sense difference wavelengths of light (visible light); vision | Photoreception |
| special senses are organized into different categories based on their mechanisms by which they operate. These include: | chemoreception, mechanoreception and photoreception |
| Evolutionarily – one of the oldest of special senses. Early invertebrates and many organisms today rely on their ability to detect chemicals in their environment for orientation, feeding, and reproduction. | chemoreception |
| For humans, chemoreception includes the special sense of smell or _______, and taste or _______. | olfaction, gustation |
| _______ allows you to discriminate among thousands of different odors, although a human’s sense of smell is not a good as that of a dog, which is not as good as that of some insects. | Olfaction |
| Olfactory sensing tissue is ...... | a 5 cm2 patch of olfactory epithelium within the nasal cavity. |
| An accessory olfactory system within our noses is the _______ | Vomeronasal Organ (VNO). |
| The VNO is very common among other organisms (reptiles) and for many it is considered to be important for the detection of _______, chemical signals passed from one individual to another of the same species. | pheremones |
| This means of communication is especially important for species recognition, sex recognition, and determining the reproductive state of individuals. Therefore it is very important for social behaviors and reproduction. | vomeronasal chemoreception |
| The sense of taste, gustation, is closely linked to ______. Much of what you taste of food is actually aroma. You know this when you have had a cold and food tastes differently. | olfaction |
| taste is based on five primary sensations: | sweet, sour, salty, bitter and umami |
| caused by sugars, alcohols, amino acids, and other organic substances | sweet sensation |
| caused by acids, specifically H+ | sour sensation |
| caused by ionized salts, specifically Na+ | salty sensation |
| organic substances including alkaloids, quinine, caffeine, strychnine, and nicotine. | bitter sensation |
| Most acute of your taste sensations, because many natural toxins have alkaloids and your ability to acutely detect aids as a protective mechanisms from eating toxin material (esp. plants). | bitter sensation |
| Japanese for delicousness) – caused by glutamate and enhances the flavor of food (ex. Monosodium glutamate) | umami |
| Our ability for _______ and _______are due to the presence of mechanoreceptors that detect and respond to changes in mechanical forces. | hearing and balance |
| Functional unit of mechanoreceptors is the _______ | hair cell |
| Differences in neural signal of mechanoreceptors depends on ..... | the direction that the “hairs” or stereocilia are bent |
| ______ is our perception of the energy carried by sound waves – alternating pressure waves that travel through air. | hearing |
| The sound that you hear is your brain’s interpretation of the ____ , _____ and _____ of those pressure waves. | frequency, amplitude and duration |
| Frequency is perceived as _______ | pitch |
| low frequency waves produce what kind of sound? | low pitch sound such as rumbling of thunderstorm |
| high frequency waves produce what kind of sound? | high pitch sound such as nails on a chalkboard |
| Frequency is measured as waves per second or _______ | Hertz (Hz). |
| Average ear can hear sounds over the range of _______ Hz, with best hearing between _______ Hz. | 20 to 20,000, 1000 and 3000 |
| Amplitude of sound waves is perceived as | loudness |
| Loudness is quantified on a logarithmic scale in units called _______ | decibels (dB). |
| Normal conversation is ____ dB. At ____ dB or higher damage can occur to the receptors. Levels of over ____ dB are generated by jet engines and rock concerts. | 60, 80, 120 |
| the ear is divided into three regions | outer ear, middle ear and inner ear |
| Determining pitch is a function of ..... | the basilar membrane along the length of the cochlea. The membrane is stiff and narrow near its attachment to the oval window and widens and becomes more flexible near its distal end. |
| _______sounds displace the basilar membrane close to the oval window bc of its high energy. | High frequency |
| _______ sounds don’t have the energy to displace the stiffer regions, and must travel down the cochlea before it can displace the membrane at its more flexible end. | low frequency |
| This allows you to perceive and decipher sounds of different pitches. | Spatial gradient of stimulation along the basilar is transported to the brain by different neurons, each terminating in different regions of the auditory cortex |
| Loudness is a function of the amplitude of sound waves, which determines the .... | degree of displacement of the basilar membrane. |
| Louder sounds, will have greater amplitude and thus cause | greater displacement of the basilar membrane. More hair cells will be moved, more neurotransmitters released, and more action potentials sent to the brain from that region of the cochlea. |
| _______ is a function of the time that a sound is stimulating the cochlea. | duration |
| _______ of sound is determined by differences in time it takes a sound to reach each ear. | location |
| sound is unable to transmit through the outer or middle ear due to blockage or trauma | conductive hearing loss |
| due to damage to the structures of the inner ear | sensorineural hearing loss |
| damage to neural pathways between ear and cerebral cortex or to the cerebral cortex itself | central hearing loss |
| Second function of the inner ear is equilibrium, your sense of balance. The _______ provide you with information on movement through space and orientation of your head | vestibular apparatus |
| Major components of balance and equilibrium: | Semicircular canals, utricle and saccule |
| The vestibular apparatus consists of three _______ which are oriented at right angles to each other and are aligned in three different planes, two which are vertical and one horizontal. | Semicircular Canals |
| The semicircular canals are centrally connected to swollen chamber the _____, which is connected ventrally to a larger sac - _____ | Utricle, Saccule |
| The caudoventral region of the saccule has specialized into the _____ which has been further modified into the organ of hearing, _______ | Lagena, the Cochlear Duct. |
| At one end of each semicircular duct is a swollen bulb - | Ampulla. |
| Within each lies an enlarged neuromast - | Crista. |
| The semicircular canals are used to sense | rotation. |
| When the head is moved the inertia of the endolymph in the crista results in the _______ unable to keep up with the movement of the head. | cupula and hair cells |
| As the base of the hair cells move, the ______ are lagging behind because they are attached to the cupula. | stereocilia. |
| lagging of the haircells causes the stereocilia to bend and therefore changing the intensity of the electrical signal to the | vestibular nerve. |
| The ampullae of the horizontal canal specifically detects | horizontal motion |
| the ampullae of the vertical canals register | vertical motion |
| Within the utricle and saccule is a patch of hair cells called | maculae |
| The hairs of the maculae are projected up into a gelatinous matrix, upon which are embedded many tiny calcium carbonate fragments called _____ or _____ | Otoliths or otoconia. |
| The maculae are used to sense | gravitational forces and linear acceleration. |
| If the head is tilted downward, gravity pulls on the _______ because they have mass, bending the hair cells. | otoliths |
| Linear acceleration will result in the _______ of the otoliths due to their own inertia, and a resulting bending of the stereocilia as the base of the maculae moves. | lagging behind |
| The maculae of the utriculus are oriented in a ______ position and can perceive acceleration along a _______ plane. | horizontal |
| The maculae of the saccule are oriented ______ and detect acceleration in a _______ plane | vertical |
| Vision is the process by which light (visible light) is reflected from objects in our environment and translated to a mental image through three steps: | 1 Light enters the eye and is focused on the retina by the lens 2)Photoreceptor cells of the retina transduce light energy into an electrical signal 3 Electrical signals from the retina travel to brain to form a mental image. |
| _____ is the means by which organisms are able to perceive light. | Photoreception |
| spectrum of electromagnetic radiation ranges from ________ to _______ | high energy cosmic waves with short wavelengths, TO low energy radio waves with long wavelengths. |
| Visible light is somewhat in the middle of this spectrum with wave lengths between | 380 and 760 nm. |
| With longer wavelengths, _______ can be perceived by some vertebrates such as snakes | infrared |
| _______ with shorter wave lengths can be perceived by some insects such as honey bees | ultraviolet |
| The most obvious and understood photoreceptor organ is | the eye |
| The mammalian eye has three layers | sclera, uvea and retina |
| Outer most layer of the eye includes the _______, a tough capsule of connective tissue which the extrinsic eye muscles attach to. | Sclera (aka Fibrous Tunic) |
| In the front of the eye the sclera becomes the transparent _______ | Cornea. |
| The middle layer of the eye is the _______, contains the very vascular choroid which is pigmented. | Uvea (aka Vascular Tunic) |
| Towards the front of the eye, there is a circle of smooth muscle called the _______ which by suspensory ligaments are attached to the lens of the eye. | ciliary body |
| Center to the ciliary body is the _______, whose center opening is the _______ | iris, pupil. |
| If the muscles of the iris are relaxed the pupil is | dilated |
| if the muscles of the iris are contracted, the pupil is _______ | contracted |
| The muscles of the iris are _______ in birds and reptiles, while _______ in other vertebrates. | striated and voluntary, smooth and involuntary |
| The inner most layer of the eye is the _______ which contains the photosenstive cells | retina |
| When light passes through an object or from one medium to another ______ | it bends or refracts. |
| The angle of refraction depends on | the angle that the light hit the object, shape of the object, and the differences in densities of the two mediums. |
| When light hits a spherical convex object like your lens ..... | the light waves bend inward and converge at a point – the focal point. |
| The distance from the center of the lens to the focal point is called the _______ | focal distance. |
| Focal distance is a function of | how far the object is – the angle that the lights hit the lens and the shape of the lens. |
| For an object to be in focus, the focal point must fall on the _______ | retina |
| If an object moves forward or back and the lens shape stays the same, then | the focal distances changes and the focal point falls either in front of or behind the retina and the image is out of focus. |
| In order to maintain focus, and keep the focal point on the retina one has to change the shape of the lens, the process of ______ | accommodation. |
| We change the shape of the lens by contracting or relaxing the _____ which results in less or more tension by the _______ attached to the lens | ciliary muscles, suspensory ligaments (zonulas) |
| To focus on a near object, the light rays need to angled more, so the lens needs to have a more rounder shape. This is achieved by | contraction of the ciliary muscles which results in lessening the tension of the suspensory ligaments. This allows the lens to assume a rounder shape |
| To focus on a far object, the lens needs to flatter. This is achieved by | relaxing the ciliary muscles, tension of the suspensory ligaments increase and the lens is pulled to a flatten shape. |
| Myopia | near-sightedness, problem is that the focal point falls in front of the retina due to a long eyeball. To correct use a concave lens that bends light outward before it hits the lens, thereby it is refracted to fall on the retina. |
| Hypermetropic (hyperopia) | Far-sightedness – focal point fall behind lens due to a short eyeball. Corrected by a convex lens that bends light inward so that when it passes through the lens it falls on the retina |
| presbyopia | age-related loss of accommodation due to stiffening of lens. Lens will not rebound to its former rounded shape. Therefore, people tend to need glasses when they get older to focus on close objects – ‘reading glasses’. |
| astigmatism | cornea more curved in one plane than another. light in one plane has different refractory angle than in another - different focal point. When one converges on the retina, the other does not - blurred vision. glasses to neutralize defective curvature |
| The amount of light entering the eye and hitting the lens is regulated by the | diameter of the pupil |
| When light directly hits the eye, | it triggers a pupillary reflex, a parasympathetic reaction that stimulates the contraction of circular pupillary muscles that closes the pupil to a diameter of 1.5 mm. |
| In low light situations, | sympathetic stimulation triggers the contraction of radial muscles that lie perpendicular to the circular muscles. This pulls the edges of the pupil outward resulting in the dilation of the pupil to about 8 mm |
| Retina receptor cells are divided up as ____ and _____, based on their shape. | rods and cones |
| The retina contains two layers of nerve cells that transmit signals from the rods and cones to the optic nerve, thus light energy is converted | to chemical energy within cells which is then converted to chemical-electrical energy through the nervous system. |
| _____ are sensitive to low light conditions and perceive images in black and white, are more prominent in nocturnal animals. | Rods |
| _______ perceive in color, but require more light, therefore are common in diurnal animals. | Cones |
| All vertebrates have _____, but not all vertebrates have ______. Whereas some fishes and amphibians, and most reptiles and birds can perceive in color, most mammals can not. | rods, cones |
| spot on retina with highest visual acuity. direct stimulation of photoreceptors due to absence of nerve fibers | fovea |
| spot on retina with no vision. nerve fibers exiting eye to optic nerve, no photoreceptor cells | blind spot |
| For some nocturnal vertebrates the _____ includes a special reflective membrane, the _____ that can reflect light back through the retina to increase its stimulatory powers. This creates the “eye-shine” of animals seen in the dark. | choroid, tapetum lucidum |
| 100 million per retina, vision in shades of gray, high sensitivity, low acuity, optimum for night vision, more numerous in peripheral vision, convergence of many neurons onto a single ganglion cell. | rods |
| 3 million per retina, vision in color, low sensitivity, high acuity, optimum for day vision, concentrated in center around fovea, single or very few neurons converging on a ganglion cell. | cones |
| The outer segments of the rods and cones contain stacked, flattened, discs containing light-sensitive _____ | photopigments |
| Photopigments consist of a membrane bound protein –______ and _____ that is bound to ______ | opsin and retinene |
| ______ is the light-absorbing part of the photopigment. | Retinene |
| Rods have one photopigment – _______, and cones have photopigments that respond specifically to red, green, and blue light | rhodopsin |
| process of converting light stimuli into electrical signals. | phototransduction |
| Because of refraction, light from the right side of your vision falls on the ______ side of your retina, and vice versa | left |
| The optical nerves from each eye transmits signals from both halves of the retina. When the optic nerves meet at the _______, the _____fibers cross and the ______ fibers remain on their same side. | optic chiasm, medial, lateral |
| From the chiasm, the fibers – _______ on each side carry signals from the opposite side of the visual field. | optic tracts |
| These fibers form a synapse – the _______ - in the thalamus, and the optic tracts then radiate to the ___________________________ | lateral geniculate nucleus; visual cortex of the occipital lobe |
| Each eye has its own field of vision, and because our eyes are place side by side on the front of our head, the two fields of visions overlap. This area of overlap is the | binocular field of vision |
| Because the same information from the area of binocular vision is being perceived but both slightly differently, your brain can use the differences to provide you with | depth perception – 3-dimensional objects in spatial depth. |
| In the monocular range, there is no true depth perception. the ability to perceive depth with only one eye open is due to | experience and mental awareness of the spatial arrangements of objects. |
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