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bkx BIO102 T1 P2
BIO-102 Exam #1, Part 2: Basics of Biomechanics
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Define: matter | any material that takes up space |
| Define: element | a pure substance that cannot be broken down by chemical means into other substances |
| Define: bulk elements | the elements of which the most amount is required for life (the top four are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen) |
| Define: minerals | elements essential to life other than C, H, O, and N (can be either bulk elements or trace elements) |
| Define: trace elements | the elements of which a minimum amount is required for life |
| Define: atomic number | the number of protons in the nucleus |
| Define: mass number | the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus |
| Define: isotope | any of the different atoms of a particular element varying by the number of neutrons in the nucleus |
| Define: atomic mass | the average mass of all an element's isotopes |
| Define: radioactive | emitting energy as rays or particles when broken down into more stable forms |
| List: 4 Applications of Radioactive Isotopes | (1) kill disease-causing organisms, (2) tracers, (3) radiometric dating, (4) cancer therapy |
| Define: molecule | two or more chemically joined atoms |
| Define: compound | a molecule composed of two or more different elements |
| Define: orbitals | the term used to describe the most likely location for an electron relative to its nucleus |
| Define: energy shell | a group of orbitals that share the same level |
| Define: valence shell | the outmost occupied energy level of an atom |
| Define: covalent bond | a chemical bond in which two atoms share electrons |
| Define: electronegativity | a measure of an atom's ability to attract electrons |
| Define: nonpolar covalent bond | a "bipartisan" union in which both atoms exert approximately equal pull on their shared electrons |
| Define: polar covalent bond | a lopsided union in which one nucleus exerts a much stronger pull on the shared electrons than does the other nucleus |
| Define: ionic bond | a chemical bond in which one atom transfers electrons to another atom, causing an electrical attraction between two now-ions with opposite charges |
| Define: hydrogen bond | a chemical bond in which opposite partial charges on ADJACENT MOLECULES--or within a single large molecule--attract each other |
| List: 5 Defining Features of Water | (1) adhesive and cohesive, (2) nearly universal solvent, (3) regulates temperature, (4) expands as it freezes, (5) participates in life's chemical reactions |
| Define: cohesion | the tendency of water molecules to stick together |
| Define: adhesion | the tendency of water to form hydrogen bonds with other substances |
| Define: solvent | a chemical in which other substances, called solutes, dissolve |
| Define: solution | one or more solutes dissolves in a liquid solvent |
| Define: hydrophilic | substances that are either polar or ionic so they readily dissolve in water |
| Define: hydrophobic | substances that do not dissolve in, or form hydrogen bonds with, water |
| Define: neutral solution | a solution that has exactly the same amount as H+ (hydrogen ions) as OH- (hydroxide ions) |
| Define: acid | a solution that has more H+ ions than OH- ions; has a pH less than 7 |
| Define: base (alkaline solution) | a solution that has more OH- ions than H+ ions; has a pH more than 7 |
| Define: pH-regulating buffer systems | pairs of weak acids and basis that resist pH changes to help with the maintaining of homeostasis |
| Define: organic molecules | chemical compounds that contain both carbon and hydrogen |
| Define: monomer | small molecular subunits |
| Define: polymer | a train of monomers |
| Define: dehydration synthesis reaction | a reaction in which an enzyme removes OH- from one molecule and H+ from another to form H20 as a byproduct |
| Define: hydrolysis reaction | a reaction in which an enzyme uses atoms rom water to add OH- to one molecule and H+ to another |
| Define: carbohydrate | organic molecule that consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, often in the proportion 1:2:1 |
| Define: monosaccharide | the smallest carbohydrate, usually containing 5 or 6 carbon atoms |
| Define: disaccharide | two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis |
| Define: oligosaccharide | carbohydrate of intermediate length (consisting of 3 to 100 monomers) |
| Define: polysaccharide | carbohydrate of greatest length (consisting of more than one hundred monosaccharide monomers) |
| List: 4 Most Common Polysaccharides | (1) cellulose, (2) chitin, (3) starch, (4) glycogen |
| Define: lipids | hydrophobic organic compounds |
| Define: triglycerides (fats) | lipids consisting of three long hydrocarbon chains called "fatty acids" bonded to "glycerol" (a 3-carbon molecule that forms the triglyceride's backbone) |
| Define: saturated fatty acid | a triglyceride in which all the carbons are connected by single bonds and each carbon has two hydrogen atoms, producing what tends |
| Define: unsaturated fatty acid | a triglyceride with at least one double bond between carbon atoms, which causes a kink to form in the fatty acid tail, producing an oily consistency at room temperature |
| Define: trans fats | unsaturated fats whose tails are made straight by the process of partial hydrogenation which adds hydrogen to oil to solidify it |
| Define: sterols | lipids that have four interconnected carbon rings |
| Define: waxes | fatty acids combined with alcohols are other hydrocarbons, usually forming a stiff, water-repellant material |
| Define: protein | a chain of monomers called amino acids |
| Explain the structure of an amino acid | A central carbon atom bonded to four other atoms or groups of atoms: a hydrogen atom, a carboxyl group, an amino group (a nitrogen atom single-bonded to two hydrogen atoms), and a side chain (or "R group" which can be any of 20 chemical groups) |
| Define: peptide bond | formed by dehydration synthesis, the covalent bond that links each amino acid to its neighbor |
| Explain a protein's primary (1-degree) structure | the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide chain (this sequence determines all subsequent structural levels) |
| Explain a protein's secondary (2-degree) structure | localized areas of coils, sheets, and loops within a polypeptide |
| Explain a protein's tertiary (3-degree) structure | overall shape of one polypeptide |
| Explain a protein's quaternary (4-degree) structure | overall protein shape, arising from interaction between the multiple polypeptides that make up the functional protein |
| Define: denaturation | a protein's loss of function caused by modification of its structure |
| Define: nucleic acid | a polymer consisting of monomers called nucleotides |
| List: 2 Types of Nucleic Acid | (1) deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (2) ribonucleic acid (RNA) |
| List: 5 Nitrogenous Bases | adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine, or uracil |
| List: 3 Principles of the Cell Theory | (1) All organisms are composed of one or more cells; (2) cells are the smallest living things - nothing smaller than a cell is considered alive; (3) cells arise only by division of a previously existing cell |
| List: 2 Reasons Why Cells Are So Small | (1) the center of each cell is a command center - the larger the cell, the more difficult it is for orders to reach everywhere from the command center; (2) greater surface-to-volume ratios b/c cell surface is the point of contact between cells |
| Define: plasma membrane | a delicate sheet of molecules encasing all living cells |
| Define: phospholipids | the fat molecules that compose the lipid layer that forms the foundation of a plasma membrane |
| Define: lipid bilayer | a double-layered, water-repellant structure formed by a collection of phospholipid molecules placed in water |
| Define: membrane proteins | float within lipid bilayer and function as channels, receptors, and cell surface markers |
| Define: cell surface proteins | membrane proteins that project up from the surface of the plasma membrane that act as markers to identify particular types of cells, or as beacons to bind specific hormones or proteins to the cell |
| Define: trans-membrane proteins | protein channels that extend all the way across the lipid bilayer, providing passageways for ions and polar molecules like water to pass into and out of the cell |
| Define: prokaryote | single-celled organism without a nucleus or organelles |
| List: 2 Main Groups of Prokaryotes | bacteria & archaea |
| Define: eukaryote | organism with cells with a nucleus |
| Define: ribosome | site where proteins are made (not considered an organelle because it lacks a membrane boundary) |
| Define: flagellum (pl. flagella) | long, threadlike structures, made of protein fibers that project from the surface of a cell, used in locomotion and feeding |
| Define: pilus (pl. pili) | short flagella that assist in the attachment of a cell to exterior surfaces and aid in the exchange of genetic information between cells |
| Define: cytoplasm | semifluid matrix that contains the nucleus and other organelles |
| Define: mitochondrion | organelle in which energy is extracted from food during oxidative metabolism |
| Define: secretory vesicle: | vesicle fusing with the plasma membrane, releasing materials to be secreted from the cell |
| Define: cytoskeleton | supports organelles and cell shape and plays a role in cell motion |
| Define: microtubule | tube of protein molecules present in cytoplasm, centrioles, cilia, and flagella |
| Define: intermediate filament | intertwined protein fibers that provide support and strength |
| Define: actin filament | twisted protein fibers that are responsible for cell movement |
| Define: nucleus | command center of the cell |
| Define: nucleolus | site where ribosomes are produced |
| Define: nuclear envelope | double membrane between the nucleus and the cytoplasm |
| Define: nuclear pore | opening embedded with proteins that regulates passage into and out of the nucleus |
| Define: smooth endoplasmic reticulum | system of internal membranes that aids in the manufacture of carbohydrates and lipids |
| Define: rough endoplasmic reticulum | internal membranes studded with ribosomes that carry out protein synthesis |
| Define: lysosome | vesicle that breaks down macromolecules and digests worn out cell components |
| Define: golgi complex | collects, packages, and distributes molecules manufactured in the cell |
| Define: peroxisome | vesicle that contains enzymes that carry out particular reactions, such as detoxifying particularly harmful molecules |
| Define: centriole | complex assembly of microtubules that occurs in pairs |
| Define: chloroplast | organelle containing thylakoids, the sites of photosynthesis |
| Define: cell wall | outer layer in some organisms (particularly plants) that provides support |
| Define: adjacent cell wall | in plants, adjacent cells are glued together by a sticky substance between their walls |
| Define: central vacuole | in plants, storage compartment for water, sugars, ions, and pigments |
| Define: tonoplast | membrane surrounding the central vacuole |
| Define: plasmodesmata | openings in the cell wall that function in cell-cell communication |
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