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Bio 140, Exam 1
Protein, Lipid, Carbohydrates, Cell Membranes, DNA, and RNA
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is the Amino group? | NH2. Basic in nature, and accepts H+, which it gives up during dehydration synthesis |
| What is the Hydroxyl group? | OH. Polar. Hydrogen bonds and linkage by dehydration. |
| What is the Aldehyde group? | COH. C=O is very reactive, and is used in energy-releasing reactions and carbohydrates. |
| What is the Carboxyl group? | COOH. Acidic. C=O is very reactive. Ionizes during dehydration synthesis and gives up OH-. |
| What is the Phosphate group? | PO4. Negatively charged. Enters dehydration synthesis by giving up OH- . When bonded with another phosphate, hydrolysis releases much energy. |
| What is the Sulfhydrl group? | SH. Disulfide bridge results when 2 SH groups give up H+. This stabilizes the protein. |
| What is the Keto group? | CO. C=O is very reactive. |
| What are functional groups? | Characteristic combinations of atoms that contribute specific properties when attached to a larger molecule, such as polarity and hydrophobia. These groups and properties determine the shapes of macromolecules and how they interact with other molecules. |
| What are isomers? | Molecules that have the same chemical forumula, but are arranged differently. In hydrocarbons, they could be branched, cyclic, or n (structural isomer). |
| What are optical isomers? | Mirror images of each other (in organics, asymmetrical carbons). |
| What is biological unity? | "Reflects the evolution of all life from a common ancestor". For example, a given protein has a similar function in all living things. |
| Aminos with (+) charge (BASIC) | Arginine (ARG), Histidine (HIS), and Lysine (LYS) |
| Aminos with (-) charge (ACIDIC) | Aspartic Acid (ASP) and Glutamic Acid (GLU) |
| Hydrophilic Aminos (polar, but uncharged) | Serine (SER), Threonine (THR), Asparagie (ASN), Glutamine (GLN), and Tyrosine (TYR) |
| Hydrophobic Aminos(non-polar) | Alanine (ALA), Isoleucine (ILE), Leucine (LEU), Methionine (MET), Tryptophon (TRP), Phenylananine (PHE), and Valine (VAL) |
| Cystine | CYS. 2 Cystine molecules can react to form a disulfide bridge, which is important in protein folding. |
| Proline | PRO. The sidechain's ring structure limits the molecule's movement and its ability to hydrogen bond. |
| Glycine | GLY. Its small size allows it to fit into the tight corners of a protein molecule. |
| Peptide linkages | Join amino acids. The first amino is "N terminus" and the last is "C terminus". A condensation reaction that makes up the backbone of the polypeptide chain. |
| Secondary structure in proteins | Beta sheets and alpha helixes, which use weak stabilizing forces (hydrogen bonds), thus allowing the tertiary and quaternary structures to develop. |
| Alpha helixes and beta sheets | Hydrogen bonds between the dipoles of N-H and C=O (+ & -, respectfully). |
| Tertiary structure in proteins | Macromolecule's final shape, as determined by the interactions between R-groups, such as disulfide bridges, hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, Van der Waals forces, and hydrophobic side chains. |
| Denaturing a protein | A protein can be denatured by changes in temperature, pH, and the addition of a high concentration of polar or non-polar substances. |
| Permenant denaturization. | Denaturing is irreversible when the amino acids that were buried inside the protein become exposed, and vice-versa. Then, a new structure is formed, which different molecules will bind to. |
| Molecular chaperones | Prevent inappropriate interactions and enhance the appropriate ones. Usually involved following denaturization or just after the protein has been made. |
| Carbohydrate composition | Formula: Cn(H2O)n. Made of monosaccharides, or sugar monomers. |
| Macromolecules | Polymers with a molecular weight exceeding 1,000 g/mol. They are constructed by condensation reactions, which produce water molecule(s). |
| Hydrolysis reactions | Break down polmers into their component monomers. Requires water molecule(s). |
| What are the major protein groups? | Enzymes, defense proteins (antibodies), hormone and regulatory proteins (insulin), receptor proteins, storage proteins, structural proteins (collagen), transport proteins (hemoglobin), and genetic regulatory proteins. |
| What are the 3 major roles of carbohydrates? | They are a source of stored energy, are used to transport stored energy, and serve as "carbon skeletons" that can be rearranged to form new molecules. |
| Monosaccharide examples | Glucose, fructose, and ribose. Simple sugars from which larger carbohydrates are constructed. |
| Disaccharide examples | Sucrose. Two monosaccharides bonded covalently. |
| Oligosaccharides | Several monosaccharides. They may have additional functional groups, which grant them special properties. They're often covalently bonded to proteins and lipids on the cell's outer surface, where they serve as recognition signals. |
| Polysaccharide examples | Starch, glycogen, and cellulose. Hundreds or thousands of monosaccharides. |
| Gluclose | "Blood sugar" used to transport energy. Broken down in "cellular combustion", which produces CO2 and H2O. |
| Pentoses | 5-carbon sugars. Found in DNA and RNA. |
| Hexoses | 6-carbon sugars. A group of structural isomers, all having the same formula (C6H12O6). Examples include fructose, mannose, glucose, and galatose. |
| How are monosaccharides linked? | Glycosodic linkages, which is a condensation reaction. |
| What does the disaccharide sucrose consist of? | Glucose and fructose (1 molecule each) |
| What are the disaccharides maltose and cellobiose made from? | Two glucose molecules. They're structural isomers. |
| Where do different blood groups get their specificity? | Ogliosaccharide chains on the outer surface of cellular membranes. |
| Starches | Polysaccharides of glucose with alpha glucose linkages, distinguished by the type of branching at carbons 1 and 6. They readily bind to water. Without water, H-bonds form between the unbranched polysaccharide chains, which then aggrigate. Ex. Amylose |
| Glycogen | Water-insoluble, highly-branched polymer of glucose. It stores glucose in the liver and muscle, and has a very low osmotic pressure (1/1,000 of 1,000 glucose molecules). Connected by alpha linkages. |
| Cellulose | The msot abundant organic compound. A polysaccharide of glucose connected by beta linkages, which provide structure and are not easily broken down. |
| Sugar phosphates | A phosphate group is added to one of the OH- sites. They are important in intermediates in cellular reactions. Indicated by the suffix "phate". |
| Amino sugars | An amino group is subsituted for the OH- site. They're important in the extracellular matrix. Galactoamine is a major component of cartilage, and a derivative of glucosamine is present in chitin. Indicated by the suffix "mine". |
| Lipids | Insoluble in water because of their many non-polar covalent bonds. Groups of lipds are held together by Van der Waals forces. |
| Types of lipids | Fats and oils (store energy), phospholipids (structure in cellular membranes), carotenoids and chlorophylls (capture light E), and steroids (hormones and vitamins). They also serve as thermal and electrical insulators and repel water. |
| Triglycerides | Fats and oils. Composed of fatty acids (non-polar chain and the polar carboxyl group COOH) and glycerol (an alcohol with 3 OH- groups). They are linked by ester linkages, a condensation reaction. |
| Saturated fatty acids | All single bonds. Rigid and straight, allowing them to pack tightly together. Fats. Ex. Palmitic acid |
| Unsaturated fatty acids | One or more double bonds, which case kinks in the molecula, preventing tight packing. Oils. Ex. Linoleic acid |
| Fat to Carbohydrate energy ratio | Broken-down fats yeild twice as much energy as carbohydrates do. |
| Amphipatic | A fatty molecule with a polar head and a nonpolar body. |
| Phospholipids | Fatty acids bound to gycerol by ester linkages that have amphiphatic properties. |
| Cartotenoids | Light-absorbing pigments found in living organisms. Beta-carotene (keeps E in plant leaves during photosynthesis) is found in humans, and can br broken down into two vitamin A molecules. |
| Steroids | Their multiple rings share carbon. Ex. cholestrol and estrogen |
| Vitamins | Small molecules that must be aquired by diet (in humans), such as beta-carotene and vitamin D. |
| Waxes | Consist of an ester linkage between a long, saturated alcohol and a saturated, long fatty molecule. The highly nonpolar structure repels polarity, such as water. |
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