The voice of the genome
Quiz yourself by thinking what should be in
each of the black spaces below before clicking
on it to display the answer.
Help!
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show | A complete set of instructions.
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show | DNA containing a full set of genes that control the growth and development of the whole organisms
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How many genes do a human have? | show 🗑
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What do genes do? | show 🗑
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show | Bacteria and Cyanobacteria, cell don't contain nucleus.
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show | -Infolding of Cell Surface Membrane
- Plasmid(Small circle of DNA)
- Slime Capsule, for protection and prevent hydration
-Pili(Thin protein tubes, allow bacteria to adhere)
-Flagellum: Hollow cyclindrical thread like structure, rotates to move cell.
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show | -Ribosome
-Circular DNA
-Cell Surface Membrane
-Cell Wall, peptideoglycan
-Cytoplasm
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What is the diameter of a Prokaryotes? | show 🗑
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What is the diameter of a Eukaryotes? | show 🗑
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What is Mitocondrion? | show 🗑
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show | An organelle, enclosed by an envelope composed of 2 membranes, perforated by pores. Contains chromosomes & nucleolus. DNA Iin chromosomes contains genes that control synthesis of proteins.
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show | A system of interconnected membrane bound flattened sacs. Ribosomes are attached to the outer surface. Proteins made by ribosomes are transported through ER to other parts of the cell.
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show | Made of RNA & protein, found in the cytoplasm or attached in Endoplasmic Reticulum. Site of Protein Synthesis.
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What is Cell Surface Membrane? | show 🗑
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What is Smooth ER? | show 🗑
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What is Golgi Apparatus? | show 🗑
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show | Sphereical sacs containing digestive enzymes and bound by single membrane. Involved in breakdown of unwanted structures within cells and destruction of cells. E.g. Acrosome.
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show | Hollow cyclinders made up of 9 protein microtubules, at Right angles. Involved in formation spindle during nuclear division & transport within cell cytoplasm.
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Which organelles have 2 membranes? | show 🗑
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What is Ultrastructure? | show 🗑
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What are the origins of chloroplasts and mitocondria? | show 🗑
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show | Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus and vesicles.
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What is the production of proteins route? | show 🗑
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What is the production of proteins route? | show 🗑
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What are two types of gametes? | show 🗑
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What does the cytoplasm of the ovum contain? | show 🗑
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What are some features of the sperm? | show 🗑
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What is the process of fertilisation? | show 🗑
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What happens when the sperm meets the ovum? | show 🗑
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show | -Jelly layer hydrolysed
-Sperm nucleus enters egg cell penetrated
-Meiosis completes
-Cortical granules,move towards egg cell surface membrane
-Release enzymes
-Zona pellucida hardens
-X polyspermy
-Egg nucleus envelope breaks down
-Spindle fo
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show | - Male; Stamen, Filament,Anther( where cells divide to produce pollen grains) which contain male nuclei. In female ovary; one or more ovules develop,contain female gametes, the ova.
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How many chromosomes do humans have? | show 🗑
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What happens when gametes fuse? | show 🗑
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show | Produces new body cells as an organism grows and develops. Retains diploid number.(2n)
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show | Produces gametes with only half the number of chromosomes, haploid number (n)
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Where does this happen? | show 🗑
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How are gametes formed | show 🗑
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What is the importance in Meiosis? | show 🗑
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How does Meiosis result in Genetic Variation? | show 🗑
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What is Independent Assortment? | show 🗑
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What is Crossing Over? | show 🗑
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How does Fertilisation happen in mammals? | show 🗑
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show | It is concentrated in the 1st part of the sperm to attach to ovum and enters before male nucleus in order to activate ovum.
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show | Pollen lands on stigma & begins grow towards embryo sac. Pollen tube grows down style & secretes enzymes &digests style tissue & uses products continue tube growth.2 haploid nuclei are near tube tip. 1. pollen tube, control growth, 2.Generative nucleus.
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show | Pollen tube reaches embryo sac, fuses whilst embryo sac breaks down.Generative nucleus divides to produce 2 male gametes. 1st male gamete fuses with female gamete(2n) and second male gamete fuses with 2 polar nuclei (3n)
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show | Plumule
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show | Radicle
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show | Intense and organised activity during where the cell synthesises new cell componenets such as organelles and membranes and new DNA. Formation of new cellular proteins occus throughout . In S phase,DNA synthesis occurs throughout.
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Which phase is more variable? | show 🗑
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show | Meristem
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Why are the nucleoli dark? | show 🗑
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show | Protein and mRNA
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show | They unravel, allowing access to the genetic material enabling new proteins to be synthesised. Also it synthesises additional cytoplasmic proteins and organelles.
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show | In a DNA double helix, the DNA winds around proteins(hisotnes), then they form chromatin fibre. The fibre attaches itself to protein scaffold forming loops. The folding produces condensed chromosome structure.
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show | By supercoiling and repressor molecules.
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show | -New organelles synthesised
-DNA replication
-Contains enough cell contents
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What happens during Prophase? | show 🗑
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show | -Chromosomes line up at the cell equator
-Chromosomes attach to spindle fibres
-Fibre attach at the centromere.
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What happens during Anaphase? | show 🗑
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What happens during Telophase? | show 🗑
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What is the role of the cell cycle? | show 🗑
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What happens at Cytokinesis? | show 🗑
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What are the adaptations of an egg cell? | show 🗑
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show | Genetic consistency, important in growth and repair and asexual reproduction.
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How is this achieved? | show 🗑
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Where does this occur? | show 🗑
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show | Old and damaged cells to be replaced with identical new copies.
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What happens in Asexual reproduction? | show 🗑
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How does this occur? | show 🗑
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Give some examples of organisms that can regenerate their bodies? | show 🗑
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After a zygote has undergone all three complete cell cycles , how many cells does it contain? | show 🗑
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What does Totipotent mean? | show 🗑
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What does Pluripotent mean? | show 🗑
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What does Multipotent mean? | show 🗑
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show | -Stimulus e.g. chemical
-causes some genes active / some inactive
in bone marrow stem cell
-Only active genes are transcribed, mRNA made (only at active genes)
-Protein made
-Determine cell structure /function / permanently modifies cell
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Explain how differential gene expression can enable cells which have the same genetic material to have very different structures and functions. | show 🗑
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show | Use for paralysing prey. Constantly replaced, therefore the Unpecialised cells which divide and differentiate when needed.
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What is the use of dedifferentiating? | show 🗑
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What does Totipotency in plants allow? | show 🗑
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How is this process carried out? | show 🗑
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show | Altering growth regulators in medium, cells of callus, made to differentiate,form small groups of cells similar to plant embryo. Which develop into complete plants that are genetically identical clones.
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show | -Large numbers of genetically identical plants
-Done rapidly
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Why can tissue culture also be important? | show 🗑
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What is Differentiation? | show 🗑
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show | Unused embryo's after IVF.
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What are the Adv and Disadv of Embryonic Stem cells? | show 🗑
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What are the Adv and Disadv of Adult Stem Cells? | show 🗑
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show | Adv: Rejection risk avoided if nucleus taken from patient, Potential for treating genetic disorders. Disadv: Ethical issues with sources of embryonic nuclei, Risk of Infection when cells received, risk of stem cells becoming cancerous.
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What are the uses of stem cells? | show 🗑
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What is a potential for stem cells in the future? | show 🗑
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When Pluripotent stem cells be extracted from? | show 🗑
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What can the uses be ? | show 🗑
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show | -Spare embryo's produced in fertility clinics, carry out IVF
-Ovum is fertilised outside body-Women, given drugs to make them superovulate, producing more eggs
-Some embryo's placed back in the womb and others are for embryonic stem cells.
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show | Grow to form blastocysts and cultured for a further period of time, to see if stem cells are formed. Stem cells isolated from each embryo and rest discarded.
-Then cultured an used in research .
-In future used for transplantation
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show | Tissue typing, organs grown from stem cells, drugs that prevent recipient from rejecting any transplanted organs and therapeutic cloning.
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show | - Patient needing transplant , would have one of their diploid cells removed.
-Cell or nucelus would be fused with an ovum, which haploid nucleus had been removed.
-Stimulated back to mitosis
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show | To produce blastocysts, from which human stem stem cells are extracted.
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What happens to animal embryo's? | show 🗑
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What is Embryonic stem cells used for? | show 🗑
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Where can in matters of science, can making new laws receive advice ? | show 🗑
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What decision do scientists make? | show 🗑
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show | By providing an alternative points of view.
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show | The HFEA.
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What does the law state about the use of human embryo's? | show 🗑
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show | Undifferentiated cells; which can keep dividing and can give rise to other cell types.
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show | Nucleus from mammary gland cell of one sheep transferred into enucleated egg cell of another sheep (SCNT).
The resultant diploid cell divided to form an embryo which was implanted into an adult sheep who gave birth to dolly.
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show | DNA in adult cell nucleus has been programmed into particular type of cell.E.g.skin cell. When transferred to ovum, nucleus may not be able to reprogram it's DNA quickly enough to be able to switch on all different genes required for gene development.
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show | Cells differentiate & become specialised.Structure & function of each cell is dependent on proteins that it synthesises.E.g. Slavary gland cell make salivary amylase,enzyme,digesting starch; red blood cells contain haemoglobin,oxygen carrying pigment.
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show | As different specialised cells must only be expressing some of their genes.
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What was the experiment Igor Dawid and Sargent carried out? | show 🗑
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show | -cDNA strands mixed + mRNA,undifferentiated cell. Complementary strands of cDNA & mRNA combined to make hybrids.
Hybrids separated out,remained a range of cDNA strands,not been hybridised; 2 cells were expressing some of same genes,also different genes.
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show | To demonstrate that different genes are expressed in different cells.
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show | Subtractive mRNA hybridization, that allowed them to quickly look at genes expressed by different cell types.
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Why did they use Frogs? | show 🗑
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What happens at the Gastrula stage? | show 🗑
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What is a Blastula? | show 🗑
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show | Only some genes are switched on and produce the active mRNA which is translated into proteins within the cell.
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show | They first to propose a theory for control of gene expression. Studies the control of genes in E-coli. (Bacteria) Which produced an enzyme called B-Galactosidase, to break down Lactose when present. Enzyme converts lactose to glucose and Galactose.
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show | Lactose X present,lactose repressor molecule binds to DNA,prevents transcription of B-G gene being expressed. Lactose present, Repressor molecule prevented from binding to DNA & B-G is expressed. mRNA coding for B-G is transcribed and translated.
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show | Uncoiled genes,transcribed into mRNA. Enzyme mRNA polymerase binds section of DNA adjacent to gene to be transcribed, promoter region.When enzyme has attached to DNA, transcription proceed. Gene switched off until enzyme attaches to promoter region.
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How can transcription of gene be prevented? | show 🗑
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show | FOP- growth of bones on odd places e.g. muscle and connective tissue. Leads to freezing of major joints of backbones and limbs; they cannot move. Even injection of medicines into muscle, cause bone formation in people with FOP.
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What is FOP caused by? | show 🗑
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show | Cells,specific recognition proteins, adhesion molecules on cell surface membrane. Help cells recognise other cells,themselves & stick to them. Part of each recognition protein is embedded in cell surface membrane, large part extends from membrane.
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show | Exposed section binds to comp proteins ,adjacent cell.Particular recognition proteins synthesised by cell, determine which cells it can & X attach to.Cells from different tissues separated then mixed; reform into tissues as Recognition proteins bind.
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Give an example of a extracellular matrix which is a major component tissue? | show 🗑
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What is a cell? | show 🗑
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show | A group of specialised cells working together to carry out one function. E.g. muscle cells forming muscle tissue. Epithelial cells forming Epithelial tissue.
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show | A group of tissues cells working together to carry out one function.E.g. muscle,nerve and epithelial work together in the heart.
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What is an organ system? | show 🗑
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show | Precise sequence of transcription and translation of genes.
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show | Studying embryonic development of model animals and plants.
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What control the development of each segment in fruit flies? | show 🗑
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show | Meristem.
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show | To model what is happening when plants change form vegetative growth to reproductive growth.
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show | In concentric whorls.
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show | Produce mRNA that codes for signal proteins which switch appropriate genes. Synthesis of these proteins coded for, results in development of specilised cells.
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show | Apoptosis, programmed.
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show | Outward expression of a cell or organism due to interaction of genotype environment.
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What is discontinous variation? | show 🗑
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show | Characteristics that are affected by both genotype and environment, e.g. height.Controlled by genes at many loci, polygenic inheritance.
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What are Blood groups due to? | show 🗑
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show | More than 1 gene,involved in influencing the phenotypes. Give rise to contionous variation , few extremes & many in the middle E.g. Bell shaped curve. E.g. eye colour, alleles at different loci control eye colour. Also height, weight & skin pigmentation.
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show | Genes will be at different locations on chromosomes.
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What happens in monohybrid inheritance? | show 🗑
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What happens when more than 1 gene is involved? | show 🗑
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show | Human height
Animal hair colour
Cancer
An enzyme called MAOA and behaviour.
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What are the possible causes of increase in height? | show 🗑
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What are the possible causes of increase in height?[2] | show 🗑
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Why may someone with potential(genetically) to become tall, may not reach their not reach their potential? | show 🗑
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show | Melanin.
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show | In melanocytes,found in skin & root hair follicle,activated by MSH; Receptors found on surface of melanocyte cells. Which place the melanin in organelles; melanosomes. Collect around nucleus Protecting DNA from UV. More receptors, more protection.
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What does UV to do MSH? | show 🗑
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show | Results in activation of transcription and translation of the gene for synthesis of an enzyme called tyrosinase, which synthesises melanin and then it accumulates in melanosomes produced by the Golgi body.
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show | Catalyses the first step along a chemical pathway, changing amino acids tyrosine into melanin.
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show | Distortion in DNA and affects replication and transcription- Thymine Dimers[Distortion of helix]
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show | -melanocytes enlarge,
-more branched,
-more MSH receptors
-so more melanin and melanosomes produced; darkening of skin
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Therefore how does genotype and environment both play a role in this? | show 🗑
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show | They become brown.(more melanin). Foxes produce few MSH receptors in summer,no any MSH produced has no effect(no receptors to bind to so no tyrosinase produced so no melanin made.
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show | They become white.(less melanin).
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What happens in Himalayan rabbits? | show 🗑
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What happens in Himalayan rabbits?[2] | show 🗑
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show | MAOA = monoamino oxidase
This is an enzyme that catalyses the breaks down neurotransmitters (dopamine and serotin)in the brain involved in the nerve pathways that control behaviour. Found in X chromosome.
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What happened when some people had a mutation in their MAOA gene? | show 🗑
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What is the Dunedin study? | show 🗑
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What causes cancer? | show 🗑
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How can inherited cancer be formed? | show 🗑
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What happens in the cell cycle? | show 🗑
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show | - Oncogenes
-Tumour Supressing Genes
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What do Oncogenes do? | show 🗑
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show | Produce supressor proteins that stop cycle . Mutations inactivating these genes, no brake on cell cycle. E.g. p53; protein stop cell cycle by inhibiting cells a lack of p53; cell cannot stop entry into s phase.
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show | Accumulated more mutations.
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What can many gene defects lead to? | show 🗑
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show | Skin, Colon, Bladder and Breast cancer.
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What is the mutation in the gene for Breast cancer? | show 🗑
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What does it mean if you have this BRCA1 gene? | show 🗑
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show | - Smoking, increases chance in cancer e.g. lung cancer. Tar lodges in bronchi and causes damamge to DNA in surrounding epithelial cells.
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How can UV be a physical factor? | show 🗑
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show | Provides antioxidants can help destroy radicals.
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How can Virus Infection trigger cancer? | show 🗑
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What is a way of getting rid of cancer? | show 🗑
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show | -Hats removed & stalks swapped
-Plants develop hats with features of both species.
-Intermediate hats removed, new ones grow that correspond to nucleus in rhizoid. Demonstrates role of nucleus & chemical messengers in development of cell.
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What is the advantages of using an Acetabularia [green alga]? | show 🗑
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In the Acetabularia ,what parts are able to regenerate parts of the cell? | show 🗑
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show | m
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From the results of Experiment 1, what can you conclude about the position of the genetic material in the Acetabularia cell? | show 🗑
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show | Stem is able to develop a hat after being attached to the rhizoid for a few days after the removal of the original hat, Experiment 1 stem unable to develop a hat.Rhizoid influences development in the tip of stem, genetic material is in the rhizoid.
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show | The nucleus, and not the rhizoid, appears to control development.
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show | The development of an intermediate hat suggests that there is an influence such as a chemical messenger that accumulates at the tip. This influence was still affecting hat development after the stem transfer.
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show | The development of the hat characteristic of the species of the nucleus present, after removal of the intermediate hat, shows that the nucleus controls the characteristics of the cell.
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Outline the ‘story’ of how the nucleus in the rhizoid of Acetabularia controls cell processes at a distance, such as development of a new hat | show 🗑
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Review the information in the table. When you are ready to quiz yourself you can hide individual columns or the entire table. Then you can click on the empty cells to reveal the answer. Try to recall what will be displayed before clicking the empty cell.
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