exam 2
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| levels of explanation | rungs on a ladder, with the lower rungs tied most closely to biological influences and the higher rungs tied most closely to social influence
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| multiply determined | caused by many factors
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| single-variable explanations | explanations that try to account for complex behaviors in terms of only a single cause
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| individual differences | variations among people in their thinking, emotion, and behavior
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| naive realism | belief that we see the world precisely as it is
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| confirmation bias | tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypotheses and neglect or distort evidence that contradicts them
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| belief perseverance | tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them
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| scientific theory | explanation for a large number of findings in the natural world
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| hypothesis | testable prediction derived from a scientific theory
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| pseudoscience | set of claims that seems scientific but is not
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| apophenia | tendency to perceive meaningful connections among unrelated phenomena
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| metaphysical claims | assertations about the world that are not testable
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| scientific skepticism | approach of evaluating all claims with an open mind, but insisting on persuasive evidence before accepting them
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| critical thinking | set of skills for evaluating all claims in an open-minded and careful fashion
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| correlation-causation fallacy | error of assuming that since one thing is associated with another, it must cause the other
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| variable | anything that can vary
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| falsifiable | capable of being disproved
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| replicability | when a study's findings are able to be duplicated, ideally by independent investigators
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| introspection | method by which trained observers carefully reflect and report on their mental experiences
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| structuralism | school of psych that aimed to identify the basic elements of psychological experience
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| functionalism | school of psych that aimed to understand the adaptive purposes of psychological characteristics
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| behaviorism | school of psych that focuses on uncovering the general laws of learning by looking at observable behavior
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| cognition | mental processes involved in different aspects of thinking
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| psychoanalysis | school of psych, founded by Freud, focuses on internal physiological processes of which we are unaware
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| evolutionary psychology | discipline that applies Darwin's theory of natural selection to human and animal behavior
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| basic research | research examining how the mind works
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| applied research | research examinging how we can use basic research to solve real-world problems
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| artificial selection | procedure that differentially mates organisms to produce offspring with specific characteristics
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| natural selection | process whereby the environment differentially favors organisms with characteristicsthat affect survival and production of offspring
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| gene | unit of heredity
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| biological evolution | changes in characteristics over successive generations due to natural selection and mutation
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| variation | first component of evolution: individual members of a species differ from one another
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| selection | second component of evolution: provides direction to the process
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| retention | third component of evolution: the favored variations are retained through heredity
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| selectionism | explanation of the complex outcomes as the cumulative effect of the 3 component process
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| fossil | remains of an animal/plant found in the earth
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| DNA | model= twisted ladder. sides are connected by rungs of pairs of nucleotides (adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine)
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| bipedalism | habitually walking upright on 2 legs
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| carbon dating | method to determine the age at which an organism lived by measuring the amount of radioactive carbon
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| regulatory genes | genes that govern genes that code for protein
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| hominids | the genus of bipedal apes ancestral to humans
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| genetics | study of the hereditary structures of organisms (genes)
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| heredity | sum of the traits inherited from one's parents
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| RNA | single stranded nucleic acid that is involved with several functions within the cell
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| genome | total set of genetic material of an organism
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| enzymes | proteins that regulate processes that occur within cells- organic catalysts
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| chromosomes | paired rod-like structures in the nucleus of a cell, contain genes
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| autosomes | 22 pairs of chromosomes that are NOT sex chromosomes
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| sex chromosomes | the X or Y chromosomes that contain genes affecting sexual development
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| sexual reproduction | production of offspring by combining the germ cells of a male and female
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| germ cells | reproductive cells that have only one member of each pair of chromosomes
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| meiosis | process of cell division by which germ cells are produced
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| allele | alternative forms of the same gene as a trait
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| dominant allele | a trait that is exhibited when only one allele is present (expressed in heterozygous cells)
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| phenotype | appearance or behavior of an organism; outward expression of the genotype
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| recessive allele | trait expressed only when both alleles of a gene are the same (expressed by homozygous cells)
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| genotype | genetic makeup of an organism
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| polygenetic control | characteristic affected by more than one gene as with most behavior
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| Mendelian traits | traits showing a dominant, recessive, or sex-linked pattern of inheritance. not polygenic
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| sex-linked traits | traits affected by genes located on the sex chromosome
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| mutation | alternations in nucleotides within a single gene. can occur spontaneously or from experimental manipulation
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