Pychology of Learning
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| Positive Reinforcer | The process of increasing behavior by presenting a reinforcer such as praise for a job well done. Pleasurable consequences presented. The result will strengthen the behavior.
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| Negative Reinforcer | The process of increasing behavior by removing or avoiding an aversive consequence. Release from an unpleasant situation. The result strengthens the behavior.
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| Presentation Punishment | The process of decreasing behavior by presenting a punisheser. (Fingers on lip gives signal to be quiet.)
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| Removal/Negative Punishment | The process of decreasing a behavior by removing a stimulus. take away something appealing and decrease likelihood of reoccurrence
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| Shaping | rewarding successive approximations toward the eventual goal
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| characteristics of effective punishment | consistency, not followed by positive reinforcers, immediate, logical consequence of offense, meaningful
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| Concrete operations | Mental tasks tied to concrete objects and situations.
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| Egocentric | Assuming that others experience the world the way you do.
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| Conservation | Principle that some characteristics of an object remain the same despite changes in appearance.
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| Preoperational | Symbolic thought; The stage before child masters logical mental operations.
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| Operations | Actions a person carried out by thinking them through instead of literally performing the actions.
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| Sensorimotor | Involving the senses in motor activity.
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| Disequilibrium | In Piaget's theory, the "out-of-balance" state that occurs when a person realizes that his or her current ways of thinking are not working to solve a problem or understand a situation. Lack of balance between existing schemata and new input.
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| Equilibrium | Balance between self and the world; mental balance between cognitive schemas and information from the environment. Balance between existing schemata and new input.
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| Accommodation | Altering existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information.
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| Adaptation | Adjustment to the environment.
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| Schemes | Mental systems or categories of perception and experience.
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| Assimilation | Fitting new information into existing schemes
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| Neurons | Nerve cells that store and transfer information
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| Synapses | The tiny space between neurons -- -- chemical messages are sent across these gaps.
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| Plasticity | The brains tendency to remain somewhat adaptable or flexible
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| Development | Orderly, adaptive changes we go through from conception to death.
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| Physical development | Changes in body structure and function over time.
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| Personal development | Changes in personality that take place as one grows.
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| Social development | Changes over time in the ways we relate to others.
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| Cognitive development | Gradual orderly changes by which mental processes become more complex and sophisticated.
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| Seriation | Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, or volume.
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| Formal operations | Mental task involving abstract thinking and coordination of a number of variables.
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| Zone of Proximal Development | phase at which a child can master a task if given appropriate help and support
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| Behaviorism | explanations of learning that focus on external events as the cause of changes in observable behaviors without reference to mental processes.
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| unconditioned response (UR) | in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US) eg. salivation when food is in mouth.
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| unconditioned stimulus (US) | in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally (naturally and automatically) triggers a response.
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| conditioned response (CR) | in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus. (CS)
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| conditioned stimulus (CS) | in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.
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| acquisition | the initial learning stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response.
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| extinction | the diminishing of a CR when the US does not follow a conditioned stimulus. eg,declining salivation.
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| spontaneous recovery | the reappearance after a pause of an extinguished conditioned response. the smell of onion breath awakens a version of the emotional response.
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| generalization | carryover of behaviors, skills, or concepts from one setting or task to another. eg, to fear cars, and trucks (moving vehicles)
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| discrimination | Perception of and response to differences in stimuli. eg, fear a pit bull and not a golden retriever.
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| 5 major conditioning processes | acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination
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| classical conditioning | a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning
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| OPERANT CONDITIONING | A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.
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| RESPONDENT BEHAVIOR | Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term for behavior learned through classical conditioning.
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| OPERANT BEHAVIOR | Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.
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| REINFORCER | In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
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| PRIMARY REINFORCER | An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.ie food, water, warmth, security, sex
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| CONDITIONED REINFORCER | A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer.
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| CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT | Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
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| PARTIAL (INTERMITTENT) REINFORCEMENT | Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.
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| FIXED-RATIO SCHEDULE | In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
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| VARIABLE-RATIO SCHEDULE | In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
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| FIXED-INTERVAL SCHEDULE | In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
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| VARIABLE-INTERVAL SCHEDULE | In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals or sometimes but not others.
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| PUNISHMENT | An event that decreases the behavior that it follows.
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| displacement | defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet EX: Children who fear expressing anger toward parent instead takes it out on a pet
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| regression | a defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated EX: When a child goes to the first day of school may suck his/her thumb
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| Behaviorist | do not view development as occurring in discrete stages, focus entirely on the nurture, or environment side of the nature-nurture debate and consider development more as a continuous process
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| Albert Bandura | believed that operant and classical conditioning principles alone could not explain human behavior and added that people could learn by observation and imitation and that people do not imitate all the behaviors that they observe, did a study on aggression
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| Jean Piaget | proposed a organismic theory of child cognitive development, children where active participants in their own learning, assimilation and accommodation
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| B.F. Skinner | proposed operant conditioning
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| Ivan Pavlov | discovered classical conditioning
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| Lev Vygotsky | proposed that language directs behavior and that young children first control their behavior by talking out loud to themselves, also proposed zone of proximal development
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| Maturation | biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience; standing before walking-nouns before adjectives
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| Schema | a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information. By adulthood we have built countless schemas, ranging from cats and dogs to our concept of love.
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| Cognition | all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. Stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
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| Vicarious conditioning | learning by watching the behavior of another and the consequences of that behavior
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| Stress | The process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.
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| Catharsis | Emotional release. In psychology, the catharsis hypothesis maintains that "releasing" aggresive energy (through action and fantasy) relieves aggresive urges.
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| Vygotsky Sociocultural Theory | Cognitive development a socially mediated process; children depend on assistance from adults and peers to take on new challenges. Stagewise changes. Both continuous and discontinuous. How culture is transmitted to the next generation.
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| Behaviourism Watson & Skinner | Directly observable events such as stimuli and response are the appropriate focus of study. Classic and operant condition. John Watson. Continuous Emphasis on nurture.
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| Social Learning Theory Alberta Bandura | Emphasizes the role of modeling or observational learning in development of behavior.
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| Jean Piaget Cognitive-Development Theory | Learning doesn't depend on reinforcers. Construct knowledge as explore their world. Biological adaptation to fit the external world. Stages: Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational stage. Discontinuous.
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| Nature | Inborn biological hereditary information received from our parents
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| Nurture | Forces of physical and social world that influence our biological makeup and psychological experiences before and after birth
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| escape learning | learning to perform a behavior that terminates an aversive stimulus, as in negative reinforcement
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| avoidance learning | learning to prevent the occurence of an aversive stimulus by giving an appropriate response to a warning stimulus
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| extinction | in operant conditioning, the gradual disappearance of a response that is no longer followed by a reinforcer
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| reinforcement vs punishment | -reinforcement is the process of increasing the future probability of the most recent response ("stamps in" or strengthens the response) -punishment decreases the probability of a response
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| premack principle | promoting less desired activity by linking them to a more desired activity or more probable behaviors will reinforce less probable behaviors
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| "a-b-c's" of operant conditioning | a: antecedent stimulus -b: behavior -c: consequence -given a particular situation [a], the nature of the consequences [c] of an animal's behavior [b] will tend to change the likelihood that the animal will repeat that behavior
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| operant extinction | in operant conditioning, extinction occurs if responses stop producing reinforcements --i.e. ask someone to dinner a few times... after they say "no" a few times you simply stop asking
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| CS, US | conditioned stimulus (bell) --response that depends on preceding conditions -unconditioned stimulus (meat) --event that automatically elicits an unconditional response
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| UR, CR | unconditioned response (salivate) --action that the unconditioned stimulus elicits -conditioned response --whatever response the conditioned stimulus begins to elicit as a result of the conditioning (training) procedure
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| Scaffolding | Support for learning and problem-solving. The support could be clues, reminders, encouragement, breaking a problem down into steps, providing an example, or anything else that allows the student to grow in independence as a learner.
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| reinforcer | consequence which increases the frequency of behavior.
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| Operant Conditioning | Learning by strengthening voluntary behaviors; a response that is followed by a reinforcer is strengthened and therefore more likely to occur again. Punishing will decrease the likely hod of it reoccurring.
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| Secondary Reinforcers | money, grades, stars, praise
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| Social Cognitive theory | Learning is defined as a change in mental process creating the capacity to demonstrate different behaviors.
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| Reciprocal Causation | the integration of behaviors and cognitive psychology; personal, environment, behavior all are interconnected.
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| Attention | Notice something in the environment, part of observational learning
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| Retention | remembers what was noticed; part of observational learning
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| Reproduction | produces an action that is a copy of what was noticed; part of observational learning
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| Motivation | consequence changes the probability the behavior will be emitted again; part of observational learning
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| Observational Learning | Bandura - many of the behaviors that people exhibit have been acquired through observation and modeling of what other people do
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| Self Efficacy | Bandura-the belief in one's capabilities to organize and execute the sources of actions required to manage prospective situations.
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| Satiation | Reinforcer is overused to point it loses it's potency.
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| Cueing | Signals as to what behavior will be reinforced or punished
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