prof.Khan notes
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| Metabolism | The sum of all chemical reactions (anabolic and catabolic) within a living organism.
Or
An energy balance act.
Or
YIN-YANG
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| Anabolism or Synthesis | Chemical reactions in which energy is used to synthesize large molecules from simpler components.
Example:
1) Amino Acid + Amino Acid----> Dipeptid
H2O
2) Capsule Synthesis in Bacteria
Synthesis-deheydration- removing water
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| Catabolism or Hydrolysis | The chemical breakdown of complex molecules into simpler substances. This process releases energy.
example:
1) Dipeptide ---> Amino Acid, Amino Acid
H20 - hydrolysis- adding water
2) Breakdown of capsule under unfavorable conditions
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| Enzymes (Organic Catalysts): | ): Proteins produced by living cells that change the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction. All enzymes are proteins.
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| Substrate: | The substance on which enzyme works. chips
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| Active or Catalytic Site | specific portion of an enzyme that attaches to the substrate.
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| Enzyme Structure: | A number of enzymes are pure proteins (simple enzymes) however many enzymes (holoenzymes) consist of a protein portion (apoenzyme) and a non-protein portion (coenzyme or cofactor)
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| Holoenzymes | consist of a protein portion (apoenzyme) and a non-protein portion (coenzyme or cofactor)
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| Coenzyme | is an organic molecule such as:
•Vitamin K -Used in electron transport chain
•Folic Acid - Used in the synthesis of nucleic acids
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| Cofactor | is an inorganic ion such as magnesium, zinc, or manganese.
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| The Mechanism of Enzymatic Action ( part one) | 1. The substrate combines with active site of the enzyme.
2. A temporary intermediate compound forms called enzyme-substrate complex.
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| The Mechanism of Enzymatic Action ( part two) | 3. The substrate molecule is transformed by:
a. Breakdown of substrate molecule- catabolic
b. Combining two substrate molecule together- anabolic
c. Rearrangement of existing atoms - rearrangement
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| The Mechanism of Enzymatic Action ( part three) | 4. The transformed substrate molecules, now called the product of the reaction, are released from the enzyme molecule.
5. The unaltered enzyme reacts with other substrate molecules.
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| Classification of Enzymes | Enzymes can be classified into six categories according to the type of reaction they catalyze.
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| Class 1: Oxidoreductases | Catalyze oxidation reduction reactions
Example: Cytochrome Oxidase
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| Class 2: Transferases | Move a group (C, N, P or S) from one substrate to another
Example: Alanine Deaminase – one of the 20 amino acids
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| Class 3: Hydrolases | Add water to break covalent bonds.
Example: Sucrase
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| Class 4: Lyases | Break covalent bonds without adding water.
Example: Isocitrate Lyase citric acid
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| Class 5: Isomerases | Rearrangement of atoms within a molecule. – with in the same molecule
Example: Glucose-Phosphate Isomerase
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| Class 6: Ligases | Join two molecules to form a larger molecule.
Example: DNA-Ligase
involeves in - DNA replication
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| Location of Enzyme | 1. Exoenzymes (extracellular)
2. Endoenzymes (intracellular)
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| Regularity of Enzyme | 1. Constitutive Enzymes
2. Inducible (adaptive)
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| Factors Influencing Enzymatic Activity | a. Temperature
b. pH
c. Substrate Concentration
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| 1- Competitive Inhibition: | A molecule similar to a substrate can bind to an enzyme’s active site and prevents the formation of end products. Example: Replacement of Para-AminoBenzoic Acid (PABA) with sulfanilamide.
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| 2- Noncompetitive Inhibition: | Substances such as lead and other heavy metals(made outside the body/cell) attach to the enzyme at allosteric site and alter the shape of the active site.
PERMENANT-it doesnt come off ; irreversible
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| 3- Feedback Inhibition or End Product Inhibition: | The inhibitor (end product-made in side thee cell) attaches to the allosteric site of the enzyme when it is plentiful and is released when it is in short supply. REVERSIBLE
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| 4- Enzyme Repression (Genetic Control): | End product binds with DNA and stops its production.
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| 5- Enzyme Induction: | Enzyme is synthesized only if the inducer (substrate is present).
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| Metabolic Pathways of Energy Production by Heterotrophs | Most bacteria are heterotrophs require prepared organic food to generate energy and are unable to convert inorganic compounds to organic compounds.
1- Aerobic Respiration of CHO 2- Anaerobic Respiration of CHO (partially broken down)
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| Aerobic Respiration of Carbohydrates: | A process in which carbohydrates are completely oxidized into H2O and energy (ATP).
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| Aerobic Respiration of Carbohydrates: | 1. It involves three major steps.
a. Glycolysis
b. Kreb’s cycle
c. Electron transport chain
2. Final electron acceptor is almost always an inorganic molecule,
most commonly oxygen.
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| Glycolysis; all living cells go thru it. (10steps) | 1. Glucose is broken down in a series of reactions to form:
2 molecules of pyruvic acid --> transition reaction---> Acetyl CoA--> kreb’s cycle
4(gross) ATP’s (net gain 2 ATP)
2 NADH ---> going to Electron chain (ETC)
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| Transition Reaction | During a Transition Reaction pyruvic acid is converted into acetyl-CoA, which than enters into kreb’s cycle.
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| Kreb’s Cycle or Citric Acid Cycle or Tricarbooxylic Acid Cycle | • Hydrogen and CO2 are removed at various steps.
• End products include:
2 ATP’s
4 CO2
2 FADH
8 NADH
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| Electron Transport Chain (ETC): | Accepts hydrogen ions released during previous two steps. End products include:
34 ATP and water
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| ATP Count in Aerobic Respiration: | Total Net
Glycolysis 4 2
Kreb’s Cycle 2 2
ETC 34 34
total 40 38
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| Anaerobic Respiration of Glucose Fermentation (Partial Oxidation) (Glycolysis - no Kreb cycle or ETC) | All metabolic processes that release energy from a sugar or other organic molecule, do not require oxygen (no Kreb’s cycle) or an electron transport chain, and use organic molecules as the final electron acceptor. Alcohol the end product.
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| Types of Fermentation: Homolactic/Acidic Fermentation: | 1. Homolactic/Acidic Fermentation: (Homo-same)
Glucose ----- > Lactic Acid
Examples: Lactobacillus bulgaricus
Streptococcus thermophilus
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| Types of Fermentation: Alcohol Fermentation | 2. Alcoholic Fermentation:
Glucose -----> Ethyl alcohol + CO2
Example: Sccharomyces cerevisiae - baking yeast
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| Fermentation - E. coli | Some organisms such as E. Coli can produce both organic acids (lactic, acetic, succinic) and alcohol from glucose and are called heterolactic or heterofermentative bacteria.
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| Photosynthesis in Bacteria (fyi. most bacteria are heterotrophs) | Some bacteria such as cyanobacteria bacteria (aerobic),green sulfur bacteria, and purple sulfur bacteria (anaerobic) are autotrophs.These bacteria utilize light energy to convert CO2 and H2O(inorganic Compounds)into glucose (organic compound).
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| Photosynthesis involves the following two major steps: | A. The light reactions
B. The dark reactions
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| The Light Reactions: light and H20 No Co2 1. Cyclic Photophosphorylation | 1. Cyclic Photophosphorylation (anaerobic organism)
-green sulfur and purple sulfur bacteria
End Product: ATP only
Light energy attaches to phosphate to make ATP
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| The Light Reactions: Noncyclic Photophosphorylation | 2. Noncyclic Photophosphorylation (aerobic organisms)
Cyanobacteria
End Products: Oxygen, ATP, and NADPH
No glucose is made in this light phase reaction
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| The Dark Reactions/Calvin-Benson Cycle: | takes place in three stages :
1. The Carboxylation Phase
2. The Reduction Phase
3. The Regeneration phase
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| The Dark Reaction - 1. The Carboxylation Phase | Carbon (from carbon dioxide) is fixed/attached to RuBP (Ribulose 1,5 Biphosphate) to produce PGA (3-Phosphoglyceric Acid).
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| The Dark Reaction - 2. The Reduction Phase | Needs the End products from Light Reaction ( Oxygen , ATP, and NADPH )
Utilizes ATP and NADPH (from light reactions) to produce PGAL (Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate).
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| The Dark Reaction - 3. The Regeneration Phase | PGAL is converted into glucose and RuBP. Glucose comes from PGAL.
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