metabolism

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refers to all chemical reactions of the body and is of two types

Metabolism

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two types of metabolic reactions

Catabolism and Anabolism

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term for reactions that BREAK DOWN complex organic compounds into simpler ones

Catabolism

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term for reactions that COMBINE simple molecules into more complex ones

Anabolism

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___ reactions are exergonic - they PRODUCE more than they consume

Catabolic

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___ reactions are endergonic - they CONSUME more energy than they produce

Anabolic

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examples of catabolism

Glycolysis, Kreb's Cycle, Electron Transport Chain

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examples of anabolism

Protein Synthesis (peptide bond formation), Building Fatty Acids into phospholipid bilayer (cell membrane), Glycogen Synthesis from glucose

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coupling of catabolism and anabolism occurs via ___ and is the most frequently used

ATP - "energy currency" molecule of the cell

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___ reactions PRODUCE ATP (ADP + P + energy)

Catabolic

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___ reactions SPEND ATP

Anabolic

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two important components of energy transfer

oxidation-reduction reactions, and ATP generation

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the removal of electrons from an atom; the result is a Decrease in the potential energy of the atom or molecule

Oxidation

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oxidation-reduction reactions usually involves loss of ___ atoms in biological systems, therefore called DEHYDROGENATION reactions

Hydrogen

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in animal cells, electrons and hydrogen are usually transferred to ___ & ___ (the 2 coenzymes commonly used by animal cells to carry hydrogen atoms)

NAD & FAD

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the 2 coenzymes, NAD & FAD, ultimately transfer hydrogen to ___ ___ ___ in mitochondria

electron transport chain

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is usually an exergonic reaction (energy-releasing)

oxidation

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energy released during ___ reactions is captured within a cell when ATP is formed

oxidation

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(ADP + P = ATP) Addition of phosphate group to a molecule is termed ___, and increases its potential energy

phosphorylation

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ATP generation, in animals, occurs by:

substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation

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generates ATP by direct transfer of a high-energy phosphate group (from a substrate) directly to ADP

substrate-level phosphorylation

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substrate-level phosphorylation occurs in the ___ of cell

cytosol

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REMOVES electrons and passes them through the electron transport chain (electron acceptors) to molecules of O2

oxidative phosphorylation

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oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the ___ ___ membrane of cells

inner mitochondrial

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during digestion of carbs, polysaccharides & disaccharides are hydrolyzed into the monosaccharides ___, ___, & ___

glucose (about 80%), fructose, & galactose

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___ converts most fructose and galactose into glucose

hepatocytes (liver cells)

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fate of glucose

1. ATP production 2. Amino acid synthesis 3. Glycogen synthesis 4. Triglyceride synthesis (lipogenesis)

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the body's preferred source for synthesis of ATP

glucose

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storage form of glucose in liver & muscle cells

glycogen

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when glycogen storage areas are filled up, liver and muscle cells converts glucose to ___ & ___ that can be used for lipogenesis (tri synthesis)

glycerol & fatty acids

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triglycerides are deposited into ___ ___, which has unlimited storgage capacity

adipose tissue

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how does glucose enter cells?

by SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT, by facilitated diffusion at GluT4 transporters in most BODY CELLS, and by facilitated diffusion at GluT transporters in LIVER CELLS & NEURONS

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Glucose absorption in GIT & kidney tubules accomplished via this

secondary active transport (Na+/glucose symporters)

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a high level of insulin increases the insertion of ___ into plasma membranes of most body cells, thereby increasing rate of facilitated diffusion of glucose into cells

GluT4

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___ transporters DO NOT INCREASE in number in response to insulin in hepatocytes and neurons

GluT

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the complete oxidation of glucose to CO2 and H20 to produce ATP

cellular respiration

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cellular respiration involves four sets of reactions

1. glycolysis 2. formation of acetyl CoA 3. Kreb's cycle 4. electron transport chain

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is the breakdown of glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvic acid; results in net gain of 2 molecules of ATP

Glycolysis

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glycolysis requires a series of ___ reactions; doesn't require O2 (anaerobic cellular respiration)

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glycolysis occurs in the ___ when phosphofructokinase activity is high

cytosol

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key regulator of the rate of glycolysis

phosphofructokinase

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glycolysis levels are high when levels of __ are high; when it's low, most glucose is converted to ___

ADP; glycogen

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fate of pyruvic acid depends on availability of ___

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when oxygen is in short supply, pyruvic acid is reduced to __ acid

lactic

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when oxygen is high, ___ is produced; this reaction occurs inside the ___ ___

acetyl coA; mitochondrial matrix

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under ___ conditions, pyruvic acid enters the mitochondria, converted into ___, and enters the ___

aerobic; acetyl coA; Kreb's cycle

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fate of acetyl coA

enters Kreb's cycle in matrix (middle)of mitochondria

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consists of a series of 8 oxidation-reduction reactions & decarboxylation reaction that release CO2

Kreb's cycle

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in the Kreb's cycle, the oxidation-reduction reactions transfer chemical energy, in the form of electrons, to 2 coenzymes -

NAD+ and FAD

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3 main results of the Krebs cycle

1. ATP production 2. formation/release of CO2 3. production of reduced coenzymes for energy storage

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for each molecule of pyruvic acid that is converted to acetyl coA and then enters the Krebs cycle produces __ molecules of CO2, __ molecules of NADH and H+, __ molecule of FADH2, and __ molecule of ATP

3; 4; 1; 1

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the reduced conenzymes ___ and ___ are the most important outcomes of the Krebs cycle because the contain the energy originally stored in glucose and then in pyruvic acid

NADH and FADH2

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fate of NADH and H+

passes along the electron transport chain

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the electron transport chain is:

a series of electron carriers in inner mitochondrial membrane; a series of oxidation-reduction rx where energy in NADH and FADH2 is liberated and transferred to ATP

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electron transport chain pumps __ to space between inner and outer membrane

H+

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in ___, ATP is produced when H+ flows/diffuses back inside mitochondrial matrix; it links chemical reactions with the pumping of H+ ions

chemiosmosis

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electron transport chain uses several types of molecules including __, __, __ as electron carriers

cytochromes, CoQ, and FMN

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electron transport chain ultimately transfers __ to __ atoms

electrons to oxygen

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cellular respiration of 1 molecule of glucose produces ___ ATPs and ___ CO2; and uses __ O2

36 or 38; 6; 6

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other fates of glucose

used for synthesis of glycogen, and produced by breakdown of proteins and lipids

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except for glycolysis, which occurs in the ___, all other reactions of cellular respiration occur within the ___

cytosol, mitochondria

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synthesis of glycogen; conversion of Glucose to Glycogen for storage in the liver and skeletal muscle

glycogenesis

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glycogenesis stimulated by

insulin

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conversion/breakdown of glycogen to glucose; occurs between meals

glycogenolysis

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glycogenolysis stimulated by

glucagon and epinephrine

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the 10 reactions that convert glucose to pyruvic acid

glycolysis

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when body requires ATP, glycogen stored in hepatocytes is broken down into glucose and released into blood

glycogenolysis

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conversion of noncarbohydrate molecules into glucose; making new glucose from proteins and fats

glyconeogenesis

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gluconeogenesis occurs when liver is low on __

glycogen

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the glycerol portion of ___, ___ acid, & certain ___ acids are converted in the liver to glucose

triglycerides, lactic, amino

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most lipids, such as triglycerides, are nonpolar and do not dissolve in ___

water

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for lipids to be transported in watery blood they must be made more water-soluble by combining with __ produced in liver and intestine

proteins

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the lipid and protein combination formed are called __

lipoproteins

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lipoproteins are spherical particles with an outer shell of __, __, & __ molecules surrounding an inner core of __ & other lipids

proteins, phospholipids, cholesterol, triglycerides

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4 lipoprotein categories and named according to density; those containing more protein are more dense

1. Chylomicrons 2. VLDL 3. LDL 4. HDL

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transport ingested lipids to adipose tissue for storage

Chylomicrons

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transport triglycerides synthesized in hepatocytes to adipocytes for storage

VLDLs

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deliver cholesterol to cells throughout body for use in repair of cell membrane & synthesis of steroid hormones and bile salts

LDLs

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deposit cholesterol in smooth muscle of arteries forming fatty plaques; aka BAD cholesterol

LDLs

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remove excess cholesterol from body cells and take it to liver for elimination; aka GOOD cholesterol

HDLs

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transport lipids in the bloodstream

lipoproteins

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most cholesterol made by the ___, but it is also present in some foods

liver

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cholesterol necessary for

cell membranes

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cholesterol also necessary for synthesis of

steroid hormones and bile

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as total cholesterol levels __, the risk of coronary artery disease __

increase, increases

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fate of lipids: may be __ to produce __

oxidized, ATP

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fate of lipids: stored in ___ tissue and in liver

adipose

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fate of lipids: used to synthesize other substances like ___ & ___

phopholipids, lipoproteins

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2 essential fatty acids that the body cannot synthesize are ___ acid and ___ acid; they must be provided in ___

linoleic, linolenic, foods

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triglycerides stored in ___ tissue constitutes ___% of all body energy reserves

adipose, 98%

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the splitting/breakdown of triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids

lipolysis

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lipolysis stimulated by

E, NE, & cortisol

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lipolysis occurs in

adipose cells & hepatocytes

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lipolysis generates more ATP than

glycolysis

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fate of glycerol and fatty acids: glycerol may be used to produce ___ or converted to acetyl CoA for use in the __ __

glucose, Krebs cycle

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fate of glycerol and fatty acids: fatty acids may undergo ___ oxidation to produce acetyl CoA which may be used by liver cells to produce ___ bodies

beta, ketone

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fate of glycerol and fatty acids: fatty acids, alternatively, may undergo beta oxidation and enter Kreb's cycle as ___ ___

acetyl CoA

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the synthesis of lipids from glucose or amino acids; making of fat

lipogenesis

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lipogenesis occurs in

liver and adipose cells

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lipogenesis stimulated by

insulin

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during digestion, ___ are broken down into amino acids

proteins

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unlike ___ and triglycerides (lipids), which are stored, proteins are not stored

carbohydrates

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instead amino acids (produced from protein catabolism) are either ___ to produce ATP or used to synthesize new ___

oxidized, proteins

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excess amino acids are not excreted in urine or feces but instead are converted into ___ or ___

glucose (gluconeogenesis) or triglycerides (lipogenesis)

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fate of proteins: biological catalysts (they function as ___)

enzymes

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fate of proteins: transportators of membrane proteins, ___ and ___

globulins and hemoglobin

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fate of proteins: defense against disease (serve as ___ & ___)

antibodies and complement

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fate of proteins: structural support

collagen, elastin & keratin

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a certain amount of protein catabolism (breakdown) occurs each day and is stimulated by

cortisol

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proteins from worn-out cells (such as RBCs) are broken down into ___ and recycled

amino acids

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___ convert amino acids to fatty acids, ketone bodies or glucose

hepatocytes

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in order for body cells to ___ amino acids to produce ATP, they must be ___ by liver cells

oxidize, deaminated

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before amino acids can enter the Krebs cycle their amino group must first be removed, this process is called

deamination

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deamination produces ___ which is converted to urea (less toxic) and excreted in urine

ammonia

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the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids to produce new proteins

protein anabolism

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protein anabolism occurs on the ___ of almost every cell in the body

ribosomes

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the 3 molecules that play a key role in metabolism

glucose 6-phospate, pyruvic acid, and acetyl CoA

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glucose 6-phosphate produced from ___ after it enters cells

glucose

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fates of these 3 molecules depend on ___ or ___ status of individual (how long it's been since we ate)

nutritional or activity

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metabolism depends on how much ___ has passed since the last meal

time

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during the ___ ___, ingested nutrients are entering bloodstream, and glucose is readily available for ATP production

absorptive state

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during the ___ ___, absorption of nutrients from the GIT is complete, and energy needs must be met by fuels already in the body

postabsorptive state

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most meals require ___ hours for absorption

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given 3 meals per day, absorptive state last ___ hours

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the effects of __ dominate in the absorptive state

insulin

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the effects of ___, ___, ___ dominate in the postabsorptive state

glucagon, E, and NE

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insulin effects in absorptive state: stimulates ___ and decreases ___

anabolism, catabolism

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insulin effects in absorptive state: promotes entry of ___ and ___ into cells of many tissues

glucose, amino acids

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insulin effects in absorptive state: stimulates conversion of ___ to ___ in liver and muscle cells

glucose to glycogen

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insulin effects in absorptive state: stimulates synthesis of ___ in liver and adipose tissue

triglycerides

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insulin effects in absorptive state: stimulates ___ synthesis in cells throughout body

protein

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during postabsorptive state, maintaining a steady level of ___ ___ is critical because the nervous system and RBCs can only safely use glucose for energy

blood glucose

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fatty acids can not pass __ barrier; RBCs have no ___

blood/brain; mitochondria

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glycogenolysis and ___ provide most energy needs (in postabsorptive state)

lipolysis

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complete oxidation of glucose to produce ATP

cellular respiration

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cellular respiration consists of:

glycolyis, krebs cycle, and electron transport chain

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complete oxidation of 1 molecule of glucose yields a maximum of 36 or 38 molecules of ATP. True or False?

True

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the conversion of glucose into pyruvic acid; anaerobic cellular respiration

glycolysis

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cycle includes a series of oxidation-reduction reactions in which coenzymes (NAD+ and FAD) pick up H+; aerobic

krebs cycle

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third set of reactions in glucose catabolism in which electrons are passed from one carrier to the next, and most of the ATP is produced; aerobic

electron transport chain

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glucose converted into glycogen for storage

glycogenesis

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glycogen converted into glucose

glycogenolysis

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conversion of amino acids, glycerol, and lactic acid into glucose

gluconeogenesis

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during fasting and starvation, ___ and ___ are increasingly utilized for ATP production

fatty acids and ketone bodies

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ketone body production increases as catabolism of __ rises

fatty acids

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by the second day of a fast, the level of __ has risen fourfold due to ___

fatty acids, lipolysis

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heat loss must equal rate of heat __ (by metabolism)

production

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heat is measured as __ and expressed in units called ___

temperature, calories

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a ___ is the amount of heat/energy required to raise the temp of 1 gm of water 1 degree centigrade

calorie

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a __ or ___ = 1000calories (used to measure the body's Metabolic Rate and to express the energy content of foods)

kilocalorie or Calorie

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normal core (internal) temperature is maintained by balance between heat-producing and heat-losing mechanisms

True

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a core temp that is too __ causes cardiac arrythmias

low

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a core temp that is too __ kills by denaturing cody proteins

high

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factors that affect metabolic rate and rate of heat production:

1. exercise 2. thyroid hormone 3. stress 4. fever 5. ingestion of food 6. youth

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heat exchange that occurs between substances/molecules in direct contact with each other

conduction

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transfer of heat by the movement of a fluid (gas or liquid) between areas of different temps [transfer of heat to air or water in contact with the body]

convection

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transfer of heat from a warmer object to a cooler object in the form of infrared rays without physical contact

radiation

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conversion of liquid to a vapor; heat lost in this process

evaporation

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control center that functions as the body's thermostat

hypothalamus

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2 parts of hypothalamus that raise and lower body temp

heat-losing center (decreases body temp) and heat-promoting center (increase body temp)

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responses that produce, conserve, or retain heat when core temp falls are:

vasoconstriction in skin (slows heat loss); release of E & NE (which increases cellular metabolism); and Shivering (which increases heat production)

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when energy content of food equals energy used by cells of body, weight ___ ___

remains constant

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energy intake depends on ___ of food consumed; affluent nations have more obese people

amount

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factors that affect food intake

stress, neural and endocrine signals

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control center in brain for food intake

hypothalamus

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body uses nutrients for __ maintenance and ___

growth and repair

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six main types of nutrients

water, carbs, lipids, proteins, vitamins & minerals

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guidelines for healthy eating:

use sugars, salt, sodium and alcohol in moderation; eat a variety of foods; get plenty of fruit, veg, & grains; maintain healthy weight; and choose foods low in fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol

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Major role of ___ is to regulate enzymatic reactions ie. Ca, Fe, Mg, Manganese

minerals

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most abundant minerals in body and forms part of bone matrix

calcium and phosphorous

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minerals also work in ___ systems to control pH (Na+, P), and to regulate ___ of water (Na+); and are involved in generation of ___ impulses

buffer, osmosis, nerve

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are inorganic

minerals

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are organic

vitamins

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most serve as coenzymes, and only required in small amounts

vitamins

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3 vitamins that are antioxidants ___ inactivate oxygen-free radicals

C, E, and beta carotene

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2 major groups of vitamins

fat-soluble and water-soluble

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absorbed with fats/lipids and include A, D, E, and K

fat-soluble vitamins

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are dissolved in body fluids (with excess eliminated thru urine) and include several B vitamins and vitamin C

water-soluble

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the thermostat and food intake regulating center of the body is in the ___ of the brain

hypothalamus

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the three key molecules of metabolism are ___, ___, and ___.

glucose 6 phosphate, pyruvic acid, acetyl CoA

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Vitamins A, B, D and K are fat-soluble vitamins. True or False?

False

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NAD+ and FAD are:

1. both derivatives of B vitamins 2. are used to carry H+ released during oxidation rx 3. become NADH & FADH2 in their reduced forms 4. act as coenzymes in the Krebs cycle 5. are the final electron acceptors in the electron transport chain (FALSE)

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During Glycolysis:

1. a 6-carbon glucose is split into 2 3-carbon pyruvic acids 2. there is a net gain of 2 ATP molecules 3. 2 NADH molecules are oxidized (FALSE) 4. moderatly high levels of O2 are needed (FALSE) 5. activity of PFK determines rate of the chemical rx

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If glucose is not needed for immediate ATP production, it can be used for :

1. vitamin synthesis (FALSE) 2. amino acid synthesis 3. gluconeogenesis (FALSE) 4. glycogenesis 5. lipogenesis

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the correct sequence for the oxidation of glucose (aka cellular respiration) to produce ATP is:

glycolysis, formation of acetyl CoA, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain

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you would NOT experience the following during fasting or starvation:

1. DECREASE in plasma fatty acid levels (CORRECT ANSWER) 2. + in ketone body formation 3. lipolysis 4. + use of ketones for ATP production in the brain 5. depletion of glycogen

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if the core temp rises above normal, the following would occur to cool the body:

1. dilation of vessels in skin 2. + radiation & conduction of heat to environment 3. + metabolic rate (FALSE) 4. evaporation of perspiration 5. + secretion of Thyroid hormones (FALSE)

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the following situations would increase the metabolic rate:

1. after ingesting foods 2. + secretion of thyroid hormones 3. sleep (no, this lowers MR) 4. parasympathetic nervous system stimulation (no, sympathetic) 5. fever

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which of the following are absorptive state reactions?

1. aerobic cellular respiration 2. glycogenesis 3. glycogenolysis (False) 4. gluconeogenesis using lactic acid (False) 5. lipolysis (False)

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hormones and the reaction they regulate:

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phosphofructokinase

glycolysis

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insulin

glycogenesis

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glucagon and Epinephrine

glcyogenolysis

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cortisol and glucagon

gluconeogenesis

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E, NE, and cortisol, and thyroid hormones

lipolysis

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insulin

lipogenesis

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cortisol

catabolism of proteins

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insulin

absorptive state

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glucagon, E and NE

postabsorptive state

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foods that we eat are used to supply energy forlife processes, serve as building blocks for synthesis rx, or are stored for future use.

TRUE

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DELIVER CHOLESTEROL TO BODY CELLS for use in repair of membranes and synthesis of steroid hormones and bile salts

LDL

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REMOVE EXCESS CHOLESTEROL FROM BODY CELLS and transport it to the liver for elimination

HDL

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TRANSPORT endogenous lipids to ADIPOCYTES FOR STORAGE

VLDL

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CARRIERS of electrons in the electron transport chain

Cytochromes

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ORGANIC nutrients required in small amounts for growth and normal metabolism

Vitamins

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INORGANIC substances that perform many vital functions

Minerals

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the body's preferred source for synthesizing ATP

Glucose

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nutrient molecules that can be oxidized to produce ATP or STORED in adipose tissue

Lipids

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composed of Amino Acids and are the primary regulatory molecules in the body

Proteins

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energy-transferring molecule of the body

ATP

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hormone secreted by adipocytes that acts to decrease total body-fat mass

leptin

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neurotransmitter that stimulates food intake

neuropeptide Y

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acetoacidic acid, hydroxybutyric acid, and acetone

Ketone bodies

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refers to all chemical reactions in the body

metabolism

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EXERGONIC chemical reaction that BREAKS DOWN complex organic molecules into simpler ones

Catabolism

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ENDERGONIC chemical reaction that COMBINES SIMPLE molecules to make more complex ones

Anabolism

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