AP Psychology Learning
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| operant conditioning | a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.
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| respondent behavior | behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term for behavior learned through classical conditioning.
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| operant behavior | behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.
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| law of effect | Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
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| operant chamber | a chamber also known as a Skinner box, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research.
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| shaping | an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
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| reinforcer | in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
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| positive reinforcement | increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
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| negative reinforcement | increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note, this is not the same thing as punishment.)
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| primary reinforcer | an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.
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| conditioned reinforcer | a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer.
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| continuous reinforcement | reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
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| partial reinforcement | reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.
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| punishment | an event that decreases the behavior that it follows.
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| cognitive map | a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
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| latent learning | learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
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| intrinsic motivation | a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.
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| extrinsic motivation | a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment.
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| observational learning | learning by observing others.
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| modeling | the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
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| mirror neurons | frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.
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| prosocial behavior | positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.
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| unconditioned stimulus | in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.
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| conditioned stimulus | in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.
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| conditioned response | in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).
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| unconditioned response | in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
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| learning | a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience.
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| associative learning | learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
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| classical conditioning | a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus.
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| behaviorism | the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
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| acquisition | the initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response.
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| extinction | the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
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| spontaneous recovery | the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
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| generalization | the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
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| discrimination | in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
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