HK 150 Exam 3
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| Acid | Mole that can liberate Hydrogen ions.
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| Base | Molecule that can combine with Hydrogen ions.
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| Normal pH in body | ~7.4 (Survival range of 7.0-7.8)
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| Alkalosis | pH > 7.4
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| Acidosis | pH < 7.4
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| Primary Source of Hydrogen during ANAEROBIC Exercise | Lactic Acid; strong acid liberating LARGE amounts of hydrogen.
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| Primary Source of Hydrogen during AEROBIC Exercise | Carbon Dioxide; forms carbonic acid liberating hydrogen.
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| Negative impact of Hydrogen Ion accumulation of skeletal muscle | May impair exercise performance from inhibited ATP (Krebs enzymes) production and interferes with muscle contraction.
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| Buffer Systems | Resist changes in pH (Acid-Base)
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| Buffer System function: | Maintain pH by releasing/accepting Hydrogen ions when pH is high/low.
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| Primary Buffer System used during Exercise within CELLS | Intracellular proteins (PCr) (60%), Bicarbonate (20-30%) and Phosphate groups (10%)
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| Primary Buffer System used during Exercise within BLOOD | Extracellular buffer; Blood protein limit quantity using Hemoglobin and Bicarbonate (>50 VO2 max)
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| If Hydrogen is NOT buffered | Acidosis would lower pH, Muscles would fatigue and Oxygen transport would be impaired.
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| Function of CV system | Transport oxygen/nutrients to tissues, removes wastes and helps regulate body temperature
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| Chambers of the heart | Pumps of the heart, total of 4; Right/Left Atrium and ventricles
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| 4 valves of the Heart | Tricuspid (Right AV), Bicuspid (Left AV), Pulmonary (semilunar) and Aortic (semilunar)
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| 4 primary vessels | Vena Cava, Pulmonary Veins/Arteries and Aorta
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| Right Atrium Blood Flow Direction | UP; oxygen-poor & CO2-rich blood.
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| Left Atrium Blood Flow Direction | Down; oxygen-rich & CO2-poor blood.
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| Pulmonary Circuit | Consists of the heart and lungs
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| Pulmonary Circuit Direction | Pumps deoxygenated blood from RV to lungs via pulmonary arteries & returns oxygenated blood to the LA via pulmonary veins
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| Systemic Circuit | Consists of the heart and tissues
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| Systemic Circuit Direction | Pumps oxygenated blood from LV to whole body via aorta & returns deoxygenated blood to the RA via vena cava
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| Arteries/Arterioles | Carries blood AWAY from heart when blood is under high pressure. Tunica media (smooth muscle layer) constricts.
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| Veins/Venules | RETURNS blood to the heart when low pressure. Valves prevent backflow.
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| Capillaries | Only site of oxygen/nutrient exchange within tissues. ONLY endothelium.
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| Similarity between myocardial cells & skeletal muscle fibers | Both contain actin and myosin = they both contract.
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| Systole | Contraction phase; ejects blood from ventricle. While at rest, 40% of cycle is spent here.
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| Diastole | Relaxation phase; filling the ventricle with blood. While at rest, 60% of cycle is spent here.
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| Stroke Volume (SV) | Pumped OUT of the left ventricle with each beat
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| Stroke volume calculation | SV=EDV – ESV
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| Cardiac Output (Q) | Amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute
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| Cardiac Output Calculation | Q = HR x SR
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| Ejection fraction (EF) | Proportion of blood that is ejected
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| Ejection Fraction Calculation | EF = (SV / EDV) x 100
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| Systolic Pressure | Pressure generated in arteries during VENTRICULAR CONTRACTION
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| Diastolic Pressure | Pressure generated in arteries during CARDIAC RELAXATION.
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| SA node | "Pacemaker” that initiates depolarization in atria STARTING electrical signal. (1)
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| AV Node | Receives signal and transmits to ventricles with brief delay to allow for blood to fill. (2)
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| Bundle Branches | Signal travels down left/right bundles and directs towards each ventricle (3)
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| Purkinje Fibers | Fibers spread electrical signal throughout ventricles to trigger contraction (4)
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| PNS | Vagus nerve (“Brake Nerve”)
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| SNS | Cardiac accelerator nerve
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| ANS HR control during REST & PNS | Nerve is stimulated, decreasing intrinsic rate.
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| ANS HR control during EXERCISE & PNS | Increase in HR from decrease in nerve stimulation
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| ANS HR control during EXERCISE & SNS | Increase in HR due to increased nerve stimulation
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| Factors that Regulate Stroke Volume | Contractility and Preload
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| Contractility | Strength of ventricular contraction (SNS) using the FREQUENCY Effect
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| Frequency Effect | Increased rate of depolarization by nor/epinephrine from calcium in myocardial cell
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| Preload | Volume of blood in the ventricles at the end of diastole using MUSCLE-LENGTH Effect.
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| Muscle-Length Effect | Increased stretching in sarcomeres
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| Frank-Starling Mechanism | Increase in ventricular filling causes sarcomeres to stretch creating a more forceful contraction to eject more blood per beat.
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| Exercise impact on Venous Return | Venoconstriction causes veins to constrict from SNS, Skeletal muscle & Respiratory Pumps increase abdominal pressure to allow veins to empty towards the heart
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| MVP Variable that determines Blood Flow Resistance and Afterload impact | Vessel Radius (Constriction; increased BP & decreased SV)
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| Redistribution of Blood Flow during Exercise: | Causes for increase in SV due to vasodilation from skeletal muscle. (NOT vasoconstriction!)
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| How Oxygen delivery is accomplished during exercise | Due to higher cardiac output, better oxygen difference and improved blood flow redistribution.
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| Exercise & Cardiac Output (Q) | Increases LINEARLY with intensity to deliver more oxygen-rich blood to muscles.
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| Exercise & Heart Rate (HR) | Increases LINEARLY with intensity as body requires faster blood circulation.
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| Exercise & Stroke Volume (SV): | Increases SIGMOIDIALY then PLATEAUS with intensity. (NOT beyond 40% VO2max.)
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| Exercise & Blood Pressure (BP) | Increases PROPORTIONALLY with intensity from greater cardiac output
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| Exercise & MAP/a-vO2 Difference | Increases MODERATELY with intensity.
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| Cardiovascular Drift | Gradual increase in heart rate.
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| a-vO2 Difference | Reflects amount of oxygen extracted by tissues; hence NOT all oxygen is delivered to tissues.
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| During Exercise HIGH a-vO2diff is Preferred | Muscle extract MORE oxygen from blood producing energy to meet increased demands.
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| Adaptations that increase VO2max during exercise | Delivery (Q) & Extraction (a-vO2)
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| Factor Increasing Delivery (Q) | Due to increase in stroke volume from training.
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| Early Phase Training Primary Adaptations | Neural adaptations improve strength coordination and efficiency.
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| Later Phase Training Primary Adaptations | Metabolic Adaptations/Muscle Hypertrophy improves cardiovascular system and enhances energy systems.
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| Genetic influence on VO2 max | 50% of range is due to mitochondrial DNA.
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| Function of the Pulmonary Respiratory system | Provides gas exchange between environment and body. Regulates acid-base balance during exercise.
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| Ventilation | Mechanical process of moving air in/out of lungs
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| Diffusion | Process that oxygen moves out of lungs and into blood. CO2 moves from blood into the lungs.
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| Conducting Zone | Conducts/moves air through trachea and into bronchioles to respiratory zone. Humidifies/warms and filters air. (NO GAS EXCHANGE takes place)
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| Respiratory Zone | Exchange gases between blood and lungs that occurs in alveoli and alveolar sacs.
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| Number of alveoli in lungs | ~300 million!
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| Diaphragm use for Ventilation | Muscles initiate pressure change inside lungs.
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| Active (Inspiration) Ventilation Phase | Diaphragm lowers, expanding the chest cavity volume resulting in intrapulmonary pressure to DECREASE. (757-760 mmHg) ‘Vacuum’ allows air flow
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| Passive (Expiration) Ventilation Phase | Diaphragm relaxes, alveoli RAISES intrapulmonary pressure (763 mmHg) Air forced out of lungs.
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| Ventilation Calculation | Airflow = (P1 – P2) / Resistance
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| Tidal Volume | Volume (L) of air entering/leaving lungs during one breath at rest
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| Average Tidal Volume | 0.5 L x 15 = 7.5 L/min.
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| Alveolar ventilation (VA) | Volume of “fresh air” that reaches Respiratory Zone each minute. (0.35L)
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| Dead Space Ventilation (VD) | Not all air passing the lips reaches respiratory zones and remains in Conducting Zone. (0.15 L) Inflammation = increase
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| Diffusion Movement | Random movement of molecules (gases) from HIGH to LOW concentration/pressures.
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| Fick’s Law of Diffusion | Rate of gas transfer across tissues
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| Factors that influence has movement within body | Tissue area/thickness, Diffusion coefficient of gas, Difference in partial pressure.
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| Partial Pressure Importance of gas movement | Moves gases in/out of lungs using diffusion.
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| Partial Pressure & Oxygen Movement | Pressure moves from 100 mmHg to 40 mmHg. Moves from Alveolus to Body Tissues.
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| Partial Pressure & Carbon Dioxide Movement | Pressure moves from 46 mmHg to 40 mmHg. Moves from Body Tissues to Alveolus.
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| Oxygen Transport in Blood | Binds to hemoglobin (Hb) in RBC by forming oxyhemoglobin using 4 O2.
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| Carbon Dioxide Transport in Blood | Transported as bicarbonate (70%) or binds to hemoglobin (20%)
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| Oxyhemoglobin Dissociation Curve | Shows how hemoglobin binds/releases oxygen depending on PO2 levels.
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| Higher Temperature & Lower pH | More ACIDIC conditions with easier oxygen release levels. RIGHT shift.
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| Lower Temperature & Higher pH | More ALKALINE conditions where hemoglobin holds oxygen more tightly. LEFT shift.
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| Myoglobin | Oxygen-binding protein that transports oxygen from cell membrane to mitochondria to produce energy.
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| Greater affinity for Oxygen | Myoglobin
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| Respiratory Control Center: | Located in brainstem to regulate breathing using chemical signals and mechanical feedback to maintain homeostasis.
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| Pulmonary Ventilation at REST | Chemoreceptors detect change forcing Mechanical Feedback to create rhythmic breathing.
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| Pulmonary Ventilation during EXERCISE | Increased O2 and CO2 Removal from Neural Input causing for Increased Breathing Rate and Depth.
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| Central Chemoreceptors | Located in medulla oblongata and stimulated by partial pressure of CO2. Detects changes in blood CO2 and pH. Increases pH with ventilation.
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| Peripheral Chemoreceptors | Located in carotid/aortic bodies that responds to partial pressure of OXYGEN. Increases O2 with ventilation.
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| Carotid Bodies | Detects oxygen levels and triggers increase in ventilation with O2 drop.
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| Aortic Bodies | Detects CO2 and pH levels primary during metabolic acidosis or increased CO2 production.
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| Tvent | Transition point where ventilation starts to increase more rapidly than VO2 due to onset of anaerobic metabolism
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| Exercise Training Influence on Ventilation | Improves Ventilatory Efficiency and Enhances Pulmonary Function with Increase in Respiratory Muscular Endurance.
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