Gender
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| idea that gender characteristics are result of historical, economic, & political forces acting w/in each culture | cultural construction of gender
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| theoretical perspective that focuses on describing & explaining social roles of women | feminist anthropology
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| cultural construction that makes biological & physical differences between male/female into socially meaningful categories | gender
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| ways in which gendered activities & attributes are differentially valued & related to distribution of resources, prestige, & power in a society | gender hierarchy
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| cultural expectations of men & women in a particular society, including division of labor | gender role
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| widespread term used for head covering worn by some Muslim women as part of modest dress | hijab
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| alternative gender role in India conceptualized as neither man/woman; each person expected to follow his/her own life path, no matter how different/even painful that may be | hijra
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| cultural construction of hyper-masculinity as essential to male gender role | machismo
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| alternative gender role in Tahiti | muha
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| question why in almost all cultures masculinity viewed not as natural state but as problematic status to be won through overcoming obstacles | manhood puzzle
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| woman’s first menstruation | menarche
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| gender system in which women’s status is lowered by almost exclusive cultural ID w/home & children, whereas men are identified w/public, prestigious, economic, & political roles | private/public dichotomy
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| ritual that moves an individual from one social status to another | rite of passage
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| biological difference between male and female | sex
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| alternative gender role in native N. America; man who dressed in women's clothing, engaged in women's work, & often considered to have special supernatural powers & privileges in society | two-spirit role
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| two-spirit role was formerly called | berdache
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| alternative gender role in Oman on Saudi Arabian peninsula | xanith
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| Arapesh, Mundugamor, & Tchambuli; examined masculine/feminine traits; women & men expected to act in ways American's considered both masculine/feminine | Margaret Mead
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| both sexes acted in ways American's considered feminine- take care children/nurturing | Arapesh
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| both sexes acted in ways American's considered masculine- aggressive, violent w/little interest in children | Mundugamor
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| women major economic role& noted for sense of business shrewdness; men more interested esthetically - decorating themselves/gossiping; feelings easily hurt & sulked a lot | Tchambuli
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| Mead found that many behaviors, emotions & roles that go into being masculine/feminine are | patterned by culture
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| significant because reinforces central anthropological thesis | Mead's work
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| in order to grasp potential/limits of diversity in human life, we must look at full range of human societies-particularly those outside Western historical, cultural, & economic traditions | central anthropological thesis
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| nonindustrial, small-scale, kinship-based, more egalitarian societies, gender relationships clearly __ from those in West | differ
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| indicates that very construction of sex/gender extraordinarily diverse, as are relationships between sex, gender, & other aspects of culture | research on gender diversity
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| daughter had no sons, selected daughter to be like a man; 5yr performed "transformation ceremony" dressed like man, trained like male, & often developed great strength & became outstanding hunter | subarctic Indians
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| for subarctic Indians being male or female included both __ elements & __ features | biological; cultural
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| term sex in contemporary social sciences, particularly defines the __ differences & __ difference | visible; related
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| gender is the term for __ & __ classification of masculine & feminine | cultural; social
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| all cultures recognize at least two __ & two __, but some cultures recognize additional of each | sexes; genders
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| emphasizes central role of gender relations as basic building block of culture & society | current anthropological approach to gender
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| gender is central to social relations of __, individual & group __, formation of __ & other groups, & __ & __ | power; identities; kinship; meaning; value
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| until 1970s central role of gender was __ & both ethnographical & anthropological theory were __ as result | overlooked; skewed
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| gender, like sex, is "natural" or biologically determined; different roles, behaviors, personality characteristics, emotions, & development of men/women viewed as functions of different sexes, thus universal | androcentric anthropology
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| meant that many important question about role of gender in culture & society were never asked | assumed biological determinism
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| focused attention on cross-cultural variability in meaning of gender | emergence of feminist anthropology
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| w/emergence of feminist anthropology, __ __ began to give way to view that gender is culturally constructed | biological determinism
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| cultural construction of gender is idea that gender is established by __ norms & values instead of __ | social; biology
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| cultural construction of gender emphasizes different ways culture thinks about, distinguishes & __ __ | symbolizes gender
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| revised cultural construction of gender focused attention on __ changes in gender relations | historical
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| revised cultural construction of gender focused attention on __ of gender in human development | role
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| revised cultural construction of gender focused attention on __ of feminine/masculine in different cultures | constructions
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| revised cultural construction of gender focused attention on connections between __ __ & other sociocultural patterns | gender systems
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| revised cultural construction of gender raised questions about effect of European expansion on __ __ in non-European societies | gender relations
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| revised cultural construction of gender raised questions about changes in gender relation with Europe & N America as result of | industrialism, capitalism, & expansion of global economy
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| late 1970s, revised cultural construction of gender, research & reinterpretation of older ethnographies found importance in cultures that recognized more than 2 genders & where __ & __ were defined differently than in US | heterosexuality; homosexuality
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| view of sex & gender as system of 2 __ & __ categories is taken for granted by most social sciences | opposing; unchangeable
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| indicates sex & gender are not necessarily or universally viewed as identical & limited to system of male/female opposites | cross-cultural perspective
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| members of either sex can fill male gender roles; both women/men could use wealth to take titles & acquire wives (woman-woman marriages) | Igbo of Nigeria
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| attempted to eliminate woman-woman marriage in Africa | Christian missionaries
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| still practice woman-woman marriage; female husband considered to be man & adopts aspects of male gender role, i.e. participation in male initiation & public political discussions | Nandi of Kenya
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| has been reported for more than 30 African groups | presence of female husbands
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| in woman-woman marriage relationship between female husband & wife is | not sexual
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| neither man nor woman | alternative gender roles
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| Zapotec cultures of Oaxaca (southern Mexico); physically male individual who dresses & behaves in feminine manner; they may be seen as 3rd gender; may do certain kinds of women’s work, but others do male work | muxe
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| gender roles in which men take on some attributes of women & classified as in-between gender | xanith, two-spirit, mahu, muxe, & hijra
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| there also existed __ two-spirit people | female
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| alternative-gender people were highly valued to the | Zuni
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| form, frequency, & cultural specificity of alternative sex/gender roles are not __ __, but appear to be woven into cultural patterns | random occurrences
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| cultures differ on sex/gender diversity in __ for constructing sex/gender variation | criteria
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| cultures differ on sex/gender diversity in extent to which variation is __ &/or __ | recognized; ritualized
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| cultures differ on sex/gender diversity in degree to which sex/gender transformations considered to be __ &/or __ | complete; irrevocable
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| cultures differ on sex/gender diversity in association of sex/gender __ with males & females | transformations
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| cultures differ on sex/gender diversity in __ __ of alternatives sexes/genders | special functions
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| cultures differ on sex/gender diversity in __ or __ placed on variations | value; stigma
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| anthropologists attempt to explain __ & __ of sex/gender alternatives | occurrence; form
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| sex/gender diversity associated w/ideology that recognizes all individuals as having own special characteristics, incl. sex/gender variations | some N American groups or in Polynesia
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| less concern for individual's private life as long as he/she observes social obligations in public, so that sex/gender diversity is not severely stigmatized | Thailand
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| sex/gender alternative of hijra related to | Hindu philosophy of dharma
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| Hindu philosophy of dharma has ability to incorporate cultural __ & __ to larger extent that Western religions | contradictions; ambiguities
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| in some cases appear to be related to cultural systems w/relatively low gender differentiation | sex/gender alternatives
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| gender differentiation is high in | Brazil
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| sex/gender alternatives appear in __ cultures & __ __ religions where transformations of all kinds are common, such as humans into animals & vice versa | African; African diasporic
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| sex gender alternative frequently found & androgyny considered sacred & powerful in | southeast Asian island cultures
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| sex gender alternative frequently found where continuation of patrilineage central to society's kinship structure, as in | Balkans
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| sex gender alternatives in Ibo of Nigeria is one way of making sure there are people to fill all important kin positions by permitting females to take on __ __ & other __ __ __ | male roles; male gender characteristics
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| anthropology documents & tries to explain __ by drawing on ethnographic record & related __ of culture & society | diversity; aspects
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| human sexual activity is most likely to be viewed as | doing what comes naturally
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| demonstrates that every aspect of human sexual activity patterned by culture & influenced by learning, sometimes in contradictory/paradoxical ways | cross-cultural perspective on sexual activity
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| culture patterns the __ __ of different peoples to different parts of body | habitual responses
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| learned to kiss from Europeans; before this contact they began sexual intimacy by sniffing | Samoans
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| natural & pleasant occupation for 2 who are fond of each other is to inspect each others' hair for lice & eat them; could gather wild foods as prelude to sexual activity | Trobrianders
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| rite of passage for every adolescent male incorporates same-sex activity in form of fellatio, believed only men can create men through transfer of semen; boys live away from parents in men's cult house during initiation; relationships not seen homosexual | Sambia of Papua New Guinea
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| age which sexual response believed to begin/end, ways people make themselves attractive, importance of sexual activity in life, variation according to gender | sexuality cultural variations
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| one of most sexually naive of world's societies; sex never discussed at home when children near; practically no sexual instruction by parents to children; after marriage nature takes its course | Inis Beg
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| sexual intercourse one of major interests in life; sex not discussed at home by daughter by elders of group; sex takes place in private but has public reference | Polynesians of Mangia
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| Inis Beg women expected to endure not enjoy intercourse because refusal is considered mortal sin by | Roman Catholic Church
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| Inis Beg female orgasm is considered | deviant behavior
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| in Inis Beg, __ of sexes begins early & lasts into adulthood | separation
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| virtual absence of sexual foreplay, belief sexual activity weakens a man, absence of premarital sex, high % of celibate males, & late age of marriage | cultural patterns of sexual repression of Inis Beg
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| study people of Inis Beg | John Messenger
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| among Polynesians of Mangia __ __ have 2-week formal instruction about techniques of intercourse followed by approved experience with __ __ | adolescent boys; mature woman
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| among Polynesians of Mangia boys/girls should not bee seen in public together but almost all | have had intercourse before marriage
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| when gender ideologies make male/female sexuality distinctions, likely to use distinction as basis for | gender hierarchy
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| gender hierarchy usually centers on social control of | women's sexuality
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| seclusion of women, cultural emphasis on honor/shame as related to female sexuality, control by men/state & organized religion over marriage, divorce, adultery, & abortion | social controls of women's sexuality
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| female circumcision in some African societies, Chinese footbinding, gang rape in US, sati, & eating disorders in US are examples of __ __ of women's sexuality | social controls
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| Hindu practice of woman burning herself on her husband's funeral pyre | sati
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| adolescence understood as distinct stage of life associated w/physiological change of puberty, as well as emotional changes | United States
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| finding that idealism, psychic conflict, & rebellion against authority did not occur in Samoa | Coming of Age in Samoa - Margaret Mead
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| in Samoa, individual's transition from childhood to adulthood involved a gradual increased participation in society, with little | psychological trauma
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| viewed rites of passage as way of publicly & ceremonially acknowledging change of social roles, or passage from one social group to another | Arnold Van Gennep
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| function of rites of passage was to reduce potentially __ __ of such transitions on both society & individual by formalizing & ritualizing them | traumatic effects
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| male initiations led anthropologists to focus attention on possible __ & __ functions | psychological; sociological
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| held that male initiation rites primarily expressed & affirmed enduring order of male relationships & male solidarity | sociological theories
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| in some societies male initiations serve to __ __ male dominance | culturally validate
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| another function of male initiations is __ of culture | transmission
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| in male initiations __ __ reinforced by dramatizing it value in public context | social order
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| by taking child out of home initiation rites emphasized importance of | citizenship
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| based on Oedipus complex; initiations rituals seen as symbolic means of mastering universal conflicts generated by boys' ID w/mothers from whom they must separate from to carry out mal adult responsibilities | Freudian psychological theory
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| showed male initiation rites more likely to occur in cultures where boys have strong ID w/mothers & hostility towards fathers; necessary to ensure development of adequate male role | John Whiting
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| explain initiations rites as symbolic reactions by males to envy of female procreative ability & mother-son bond; particularly in those w/bloodletting | psychological theory
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| noted male initiation rites frequently involve male ritualizing birth & taking over, as collective group, functions women perform naturally | Margaret Mead
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| described male initiation rights of Sambia; men's symbolic control over rebirth of boys, making them into men; long process of initiation incl beating/whippings, before regarded as men | Gilbert Herdt
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| viewed ordeals, taboos, & solemnity of initiations rites as essential to communicating seriousness of life & duties of initiates | Radcliffe-Brown
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| sociological & psychological initiation rites __ each other | complement
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| female __ rights are generally performed for individuals at menarche | initiation
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| found girls' initiation rites more likely in societies in which girl continues to lice in mother's home after marriage; suggests way of publicly announcing girls' status change | Judith Brown
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| explain elaborate girls' initiation rite called Chisungu by saying that they make girls clever, which means to be intelligent & socially competent & to have knowledge of etiquette | Bemba women
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| female initiation rites are most productively analyzed on | their own terms
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| female initiation rites emphasize those qualities that will help women be strong wives who can help husbands & rear children, strengthen fortitude, & provide capacity for hard work helping husbands gather wealth | Yangoru Boiken
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| __ __ of girls' initiation rites may refer not only to male-female sexual relations & biological reproduction, but also __ of society | sexual symbolism; reproduction
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| move through individuals through successive stages of life | processual
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| studies emphasize initiation rites are processual | Papua New Guinea
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| girls' transition to adulthood does not end w/puberty rite; series of rite celebrating reproduction, culminating in marriage & birth of 1st child | Murik
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| provides new insights into ritual manipulation of body that is often central to these ceremonies | analysis of female initiation
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| ceremonies may include ordeals, scarification, circumcision, & infibulation | female initiations
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| stitching together of vulva, leaving small opening for passage of urine & menstrual blood | infibulation
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| one form of female power, manifest in procreation | bodily attractiveness
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| exchange of valuables plays important role in female initiations; initiate displays wealth parents/clan contributed significantly influencing bridewealth negotiations | Manam
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| symbolic significance test of initiate's preparation for adulthood & permanent signs of change of status | female ritual manipulation of body
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| Manam wealth displayed affects the __ __ of kin group who sponsor it | social reputation
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| includes construction of masculinity in which control of female sexuality is central; women are the devil | Andalusia
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| biblical story of Eve justifies view that men are more virtuous than women, more pure & closer to God | San Blas
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| husbands fear women that drive them to premature death by sapping their strength through demands for frequent sexual activity & heavy physical labor | San Blas men
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| go through turbulent adolescent period of heavy drinking; become know as Weekend Warriors | young Trukese men
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| define in terms of competitiveness, assertiveness, risk-taking in face of danger, physical strength; no initiation rituals, males must continually demonstrate manhood in public arena | Truk masculinity
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| ethnography on island of Truk | Mac Marshall
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| described patterns of manhood among Mehinaku; male's preoccupation w/public display of manhood to culturally conditioned defense against castration anxiety | Thomas Gregor
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| in order to compensate for their fears of castration men feel compelled to demonstrate their masculinity at every opportunity | Mehinaku
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| importance of machismo in resolving male ambivalence; such cultural patterns help ensure men will fulfill roles as procreators, providers & protectors of families | David Gilmore
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| 1st problem w/universalist view of masculinity, by Gilmore, is it does not recognize __ __ __ within a culture, as well as differences among cultures | pluralities of masculinities
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| 2nd problem w/universalist view of masculinity, by Gilmore, is the __ __ between men/women in society | power differences
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| points out the as masculinity becomes more central to gender research theoretical questions will become more important part of ethnographic research agenda | Don Conway-Long
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| one dimension of imbalance between power of men & women is | gender violence
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| gender roles include expectations about __ __ of men & women | natural abilities
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| gender roles include expectations about __ considered suitable for each sex | occupations
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| gender roles include expectations about difference in __ & __ of men/women | temperament; personality
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| gender roles include expectations about kinds of __ most __ for men/women | behavior; appropriate
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| gender roles include expectations about __ towards themselves & others | attitudes
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| clearly related to one another because access to marital resources, prestige, power, & autonomy depend significantly on what one does/allowed to do in society | gender roles & hierarchy
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| private/public dichotomy emerged most sharply in __ __ 19th-century capitalist society | highly stratified
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| native __ groups in N America were among the most gender egalitarian societies | foraging
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| contemporary anthropological approach to gender emphasizes central role of gender relations as a | basic building block of culture
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| area of the world most associated with the two spirit is | native societies of North America
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| omen's hunting among the Agata illustrates that demands of child rearing can be | adapted to economic needs
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| rise of plow agriculture has generally __ women's status | lowered
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| Margaret Mead was an important early cultural anthropologist who emphasized the importance of | culture in gender behavior
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| early critic of private/public dichotomy as key to women's status; widespread male dominant attributed to economic factors; comparative examination of foraging/horticultural societies | Ernestine Friedl
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| Friedl noted key factor in women's status was degree to which they __ distribution & exchange of goods/services outside of __ __ | controlled; domestic unit
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| Friedl argued that in foraging societies because men exercised control over __ __ __ in larger community that gave them more power & status in society | distribution of meat
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| Friedl argued that in horticultural societies men cleared land, thus in position to control __ __ __, putting them in higher position of power | allocation of land
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| Friedl suggested that because care of small children can be shared within group women's low status cannot be explained in their | obligations in child rearing
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| cultural norms regarding family size & systems of child care are arranged to conform with | women's productive work
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| Montagnais egalitarian before European contact demonstrating European expansion led to gender inequalities | Eleanor Leacock
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| Leacock's work led to greater focus on changes in gender relations wrought by | European encounter
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| controlled cross-cultural comparison to ascertain whether male dominance was universal & if not under what conditions it emerged | Peggy Sanday
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| Sanday concluded that male dominance correlated with | ecological stress & warfare
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| Sanday showed that where survival of group rests on more male actions, such as warfare, women __ male dominance for sake of __ & __ __ | accept; social; cultural survival
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| women make important economic contribution to households through hunting; carry nursing infants on their backs during forest trips | Agta
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