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Chapter 10 - ANT2410
Gender
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| idea that gender characteristics are result of historical, economic, & political forces acting w/in each culture | cultural construction of gender |
| theoretical perspective that focuses on describing & explaining social roles of women | feminist anthropology |
| cultural construction that makes biological & physical differences between male/female into socially meaningful categories | gender |
| ways in which gendered activities & attributes are differentially valued & related to distribution of resources, prestige, & power in a society | gender hierarchy |
| cultural expectations of men & women in a particular society, including division of labor | gender role |
| widespread term used for head covering worn by some Muslim women as part of modest dress | hijab |
| alternative gender role in India conceptualized as neither man/woman; each person expected to follow his/her own life path, no matter how different/even painful that may be | hijra |
| cultural construction of hyper-masculinity as essential to male gender role | machismo |
| alternative gender role in Tahiti | muha |
| question why in almost all cultures masculinity viewed not as natural state but as problematic status to be won through overcoming obstacles | manhood puzzle |
| woman’s first menstruation | menarche |
| gender system in which women’s status is lowered by almost exclusive cultural ID w/home & children, whereas men are identified w/public, prestigious, economic, & political roles | private/public dichotomy |
| ritual that moves an individual from one social status to another | rite of passage |
| biological difference between male and female | sex |
| alternative gender role in native N. America; man who dressed in women's clothing, engaged in women's work, & often considered to have special supernatural powers & privileges in society | two-spirit role |
| two-spirit role was formerly called | berdache |
| alternative gender role in Oman on Saudi Arabian peninsula | xanith |
| Arapesh, Mundugamor, & Tchambuli; examined masculine/feminine traits; women & men expected to act in ways American's considered both masculine/feminine | Margaret Mead |
| both sexes acted in ways American's considered feminine- take care children/nurturing | Arapesh |
| both sexes acted in ways American's considered masculine- aggressive, violent w/little interest in children | Mundugamor |
| women major economic role& noted for sense of business shrewdness; men more interested esthetically - decorating themselves/gossiping; feelings easily hurt & sulked a lot | Tchambuli |
| Mead found that many behaviors, emotions & roles that go into being masculine/feminine are | patterned by culture |
| significant because reinforces central anthropological thesis | Mead's work |
| in order to grasp potential/limits of diversity in human life, we must look at full range of human societies-particularly those outside Western historical, cultural, & economic traditions | central anthropological thesis |
| nonindustrial, small-scale, kinship-based, more egalitarian societies, gender relationships clearly __ from those in West | differ |
| indicates that very construction of sex/gender extraordinarily diverse, as are relationships between sex, gender, & other aspects of culture | research on gender diversity |
| daughter had no sons, selected daughter to be like a man; 5yr performed "transformation ceremony" dressed like man, trained like male, & often developed great strength & became outstanding hunter | subarctic Indians |
| for subarctic Indians being male or female included both __ elements & __ features | biological; cultural |
| term sex in contemporary social sciences, particularly defines the __ differences & __ difference | visible; related |
| gender is the term for __ & __ classification of masculine & feminine | cultural; social |
| all cultures recognize at least two __ & two __, but some cultures recognize additional of each | sexes; genders |
| emphasizes central role of gender relations as basic building block of culture & society | current anthropological approach to gender |
| gender is central to social relations of __, individual & group __, formation of __ & other groups, & __ & __ | power; identities; kinship; meaning; value |
| until 1970s central role of gender was __ & both ethnographical & anthropological theory were __ as result | overlooked; skewed |
| gender, like sex, is "natural" or biologically determined; different roles, behaviors, personality characteristics, emotions, & development of men/women viewed as functions of different sexes, thus universal | androcentric anthropology |
| meant that many important question about role of gender in culture & society were never asked | assumed biological determinism |
| focused attention on cross-cultural variability in meaning of gender | emergence of feminist anthropology |
| w/emergence of feminist anthropology, __ __ began to give way to view that gender is culturally constructed | biological determinism |
| cultural construction of gender is idea that gender is established by __ norms & values instead of __ | social; biology |
| cultural construction of gender emphasizes different ways culture thinks about, distinguishes & __ __ | symbolizes gender |
| revised cultural construction of gender focused attention on __ changes in gender relations | historical |
| revised cultural construction of gender focused attention on __ of gender in human development | role |
| revised cultural construction of gender focused attention on __ of feminine/masculine in different cultures | constructions |
| revised cultural construction of gender focused attention on connections between __ __ & other sociocultural patterns | gender systems |
| revised cultural construction of gender raised questions about effect of European expansion on __ __ in non-European societies | gender relations |
| revised cultural construction of gender raised questions about changes in gender relation with Europe & N America as result of | industrialism, capitalism, & expansion of global economy |
| late 1970s, revised cultural construction of gender, research & reinterpretation of older ethnographies found importance in cultures that recognized more than 2 genders & where __ & __ were defined differently than in US | heterosexuality; homosexuality |
| view of sex & gender as system of 2 __ & __ categories is taken for granted by most social sciences | opposing; unchangeable |
| indicates sex & gender are not necessarily or universally viewed as identical & limited to system of male/female opposites | cross-cultural perspective |
| members of either sex can fill male gender roles; both women/men could use wealth to take titles & acquire wives (woman-woman marriages) | Igbo of Nigeria |
| attempted to eliminate woman-woman marriage in Africa | Christian missionaries |
| still practice woman-woman marriage; female husband considered to be man & adopts aspects of male gender role, i.e. participation in male initiation & public political discussions | Nandi of Kenya |
| has been reported for more than 30 African groups | presence of female husbands |
| in woman-woman marriage relationship between female husband & wife is | not sexual |
| neither man nor woman | alternative gender roles |
| Zapotec cultures of Oaxaca (southern Mexico); physically male individual who dresses & behaves in feminine manner; they may be seen as 3rd gender; may do certain kinds of women’s work, but others do male work | muxe |
| gender roles in which men take on some attributes of women & classified as in-between gender | xanith, two-spirit, mahu, muxe, & hijra |
| there also existed __ two-spirit people | female |
| alternative-gender people were highly valued to the | Zuni |
| form, frequency, & cultural specificity of alternative sex/gender roles are not __ __, but appear to be woven into cultural patterns | random occurrences |
| cultures differ on sex/gender diversity in __ for constructing sex/gender variation | criteria |
| cultures differ on sex/gender diversity in extent to which variation is __ &/or __ | recognized; ritualized |
| cultures differ on sex/gender diversity in degree to which sex/gender transformations considered to be __ &/or __ | complete; irrevocable |
| cultures differ on sex/gender diversity in association of sex/gender __ with males & females | transformations |
| cultures differ on sex/gender diversity in __ __ of alternatives sexes/genders | special functions |
| cultures differ on sex/gender diversity in __ or __ placed on variations | value; stigma |
| anthropologists attempt to explain __ & __ of sex/gender alternatives | occurrence; form |
| sex/gender diversity associated w/ideology that recognizes all individuals as having own special characteristics, incl. sex/gender variations | some N American groups or in Polynesia |
| less concern for individual's private life as long as he/she observes social obligations in public, so that sex/gender diversity is not severely stigmatized | Thailand |
| sex/gender alternative of hijra related to | Hindu philosophy of dharma |
| Hindu philosophy of dharma has ability to incorporate cultural __ & __ to larger extent that Western religions | contradictions; ambiguities |
| in some cases appear to be related to cultural systems w/relatively low gender differentiation | sex/gender alternatives |
| gender differentiation is high in | Brazil |
| sex/gender alternatives appear in __ cultures & __ __ religions where transformations of all kinds are common, such as humans into animals & vice versa | African; African diasporic |
| sex gender alternative frequently found & androgyny considered sacred & powerful in | southeast Asian island cultures |
| sex gender alternative frequently found where continuation of patrilineage central to society's kinship structure, as in | Balkans |
| sex gender alternatives in Ibo of Nigeria is one way of making sure there are people to fill all important kin positions by permitting females to take on __ __ & other __ __ __ | male roles; male gender characteristics |
| anthropology documents & tries to explain __ by drawing on ethnographic record & related __ of culture & society | diversity; aspects |
| human sexual activity is most likely to be viewed as | doing what comes naturally |
| demonstrates that every aspect of human sexual activity patterned by culture & influenced by learning, sometimes in contradictory/paradoxical ways | cross-cultural perspective on sexual activity |
| culture patterns the __ __ of different peoples to different parts of body | habitual responses |
| learned to kiss from Europeans; before this contact they began sexual intimacy by sniffing | Samoans |
| natural & pleasant occupation for 2 who are fond of each other is to inspect each others' hair for lice & eat them; could gather wild foods as prelude to sexual activity | Trobrianders |
| rite of passage for every adolescent male incorporates same-sex activity in form of fellatio, believed only men can create men through transfer of semen; boys live away from parents in men's cult house during initiation; relationships not seen homosexual | Sambia of Papua New Guinea |
| age which sexual response believed to begin/end, ways people make themselves attractive, importance of sexual activity in life, variation according to gender | sexuality cultural variations |
| one of most sexually naive of world's societies; sex never discussed at home when children near; practically no sexual instruction by parents to children; after marriage nature takes its course | Inis Beg |
| sexual intercourse one of major interests in life; sex not discussed at home by daughter by elders of group; sex takes place in private but has public reference | Polynesians of Mangia |
| Inis Beg women expected to endure not enjoy intercourse because refusal is considered mortal sin by | Roman Catholic Church |
| Inis Beg female orgasm is considered | deviant behavior |
| in Inis Beg, __ of sexes begins early & lasts into adulthood | separation |
| virtual absence of sexual foreplay, belief sexual activity weakens a man, absence of premarital sex, high % of celibate males, & late age of marriage | cultural patterns of sexual repression of Inis Beg |
| study people of Inis Beg | John Messenger |
| among Polynesians of Mangia __ __ have 2-week formal instruction about techniques of intercourse followed by approved experience with __ __ | adolescent boys; mature woman |
| among Polynesians of Mangia boys/girls should not bee seen in public together but almost all | have had intercourse before marriage |
| when gender ideologies make male/female sexuality distinctions, likely to use distinction as basis for | gender hierarchy |
| gender hierarchy usually centers on social control of | women's sexuality |
| seclusion of women, cultural emphasis on honor/shame as related to female sexuality, control by men/state & organized religion over marriage, divorce, adultery, & abortion | social controls of women's sexuality |
| female circumcision in some African societies, Chinese footbinding, gang rape in US, sati, & eating disorders in US are examples of __ __ of women's sexuality | social controls |
| Hindu practice of woman burning herself on her husband's funeral pyre | sati |
| adolescence understood as distinct stage of life associated w/physiological change of puberty, as well as emotional changes | United States |
| finding that idealism, psychic conflict, & rebellion against authority did not occur in Samoa | Coming of Age in Samoa - Margaret Mead |
| in Samoa, individual's transition from childhood to adulthood involved a gradual increased participation in society, with little | psychological trauma |
| viewed rites of passage as way of publicly & ceremonially acknowledging change of social roles, or passage from one social group to another | Arnold Van Gennep |
| function of rites of passage was to reduce potentially __ __ of such transitions on both society & individual by formalizing & ritualizing them | traumatic effects |
| male initiations led anthropologists to focus attention on possible __ & __ functions | psychological; sociological |
| held that male initiation rites primarily expressed & affirmed enduring order of male relationships & male solidarity | sociological theories |
| in some societies male initiations serve to __ __ male dominance | culturally validate |
| another function of male initiations is __ of culture | transmission |
| in male initiations __ __ reinforced by dramatizing it value in public context | social order |
| by taking child out of home initiation rites emphasized importance of | citizenship |
| based on Oedipus complex; initiations rituals seen as symbolic means of mastering universal conflicts generated by boys' ID w/mothers from whom they must separate from to carry out mal adult responsibilities | Freudian psychological theory |
| showed male initiation rites more likely to occur in cultures where boys have strong ID w/mothers & hostility towards fathers; necessary to ensure development of adequate male role | John Whiting |
| explain initiations rites as symbolic reactions by males to envy of female procreative ability & mother-son bond; particularly in those w/bloodletting | psychological theory |
| noted male initiation rites frequently involve male ritualizing birth & taking over, as collective group, functions women perform naturally | Margaret Mead |
| described male initiation rights of Sambia; men's symbolic control over rebirth of boys, making them into men; long process of initiation incl beating/whippings, before regarded as men | Gilbert Herdt |
| viewed ordeals, taboos, & solemnity of initiations rites as essential to communicating seriousness of life & duties of initiates | Radcliffe-Brown |
| sociological & psychological initiation rites __ each other | complement |
| female __ rights are generally performed for individuals at menarche | initiation |
| found girls' initiation rites more likely in societies in which girl continues to lice in mother's home after marriage; suggests way of publicly announcing girls' status change | Judith Brown |
| explain elaborate girls' initiation rite called Chisungu by saying that they make girls clever, which means to be intelligent & socially competent & to have knowledge of etiquette | Bemba women |
| female initiation rites are most productively analyzed on | their own terms |
| female initiation rites emphasize those qualities that will help women be strong wives who can help husbands & rear children, strengthen fortitude, & provide capacity for hard work helping husbands gather wealth | Yangoru Boiken |
| __ __ of girls' initiation rites may refer not only to male-female sexual relations & biological reproduction, but also __ of society | sexual symbolism; reproduction |
| move through individuals through successive stages of life | processual |
| studies emphasize initiation rites are processual | Papua New Guinea |
| girls' transition to adulthood does not end w/puberty rite; series of rite celebrating reproduction, culminating in marriage & birth of 1st child | Murik |
| provides new insights into ritual manipulation of body that is often central to these ceremonies | analysis of female initiation |
| ceremonies may include ordeals, scarification, circumcision, & infibulation | female initiations |
| stitching together of vulva, leaving small opening for passage of urine & menstrual blood | infibulation |
| one form of female power, manifest in procreation | bodily attractiveness |
| exchange of valuables plays important role in female initiations; initiate displays wealth parents/clan contributed significantly influencing bridewealth negotiations | Manam |
| symbolic significance test of initiate's preparation for adulthood & permanent signs of change of status | female ritual manipulation of body |
| Manam wealth displayed affects the __ __ of kin group who sponsor it | social reputation |
| includes construction of masculinity in which control of female sexuality is central; women are the devil | Andalusia |
| biblical story of Eve justifies view that men are more virtuous than women, more pure & closer to God | San Blas |
| husbands fear women that drive them to premature death by sapping their strength through demands for frequent sexual activity & heavy physical labor | San Blas men |
| go through turbulent adolescent period of heavy drinking; become know as Weekend Warriors | young Trukese men |
| define in terms of competitiveness, assertiveness, risk-taking in face of danger, physical strength; no initiation rituals, males must continually demonstrate manhood in public arena | Truk masculinity |
| ethnography on island of Truk | Mac Marshall |
| described patterns of manhood among Mehinaku; male's preoccupation w/public display of manhood to culturally conditioned defense against castration anxiety | Thomas Gregor |
| in order to compensate for their fears of castration men feel compelled to demonstrate their masculinity at every opportunity | Mehinaku |
| importance of machismo in resolving male ambivalence; such cultural patterns help ensure men will fulfill roles as procreators, providers & protectors of families | David Gilmore |
| 1st problem w/universalist view of masculinity, by Gilmore, is it does not recognize __ __ __ within a culture, as well as differences among cultures | pluralities of masculinities |
| 2nd problem w/universalist view of masculinity, by Gilmore, is the __ __ between men/women in society | power differences |
| points out the as masculinity becomes more central to gender research theoretical questions will become more important part of ethnographic research agenda | Don Conway-Long |
| one dimension of imbalance between power of men & women is | gender violence |
| gender roles include expectations about __ __ of men & women | natural abilities |
| gender roles include expectations about __ considered suitable for each sex | occupations |
| gender roles include expectations about difference in __ & __ of men/women | temperament; personality |
| gender roles include expectations about kinds of __ most __ for men/women | behavior; appropriate |
| gender roles include expectations about __ towards themselves & others | attitudes |
| clearly related to one another because access to marital resources, prestige, power, & autonomy depend significantly on what one does/allowed to do in society | gender roles & hierarchy |
| private/public dichotomy emerged most sharply in __ __ 19th-century capitalist society | highly stratified |
| native __ groups in N America were among the most gender egalitarian societies | foraging |
| contemporary anthropological approach to gender emphasizes central role of gender relations as a | basic building block of culture |
| area of the world most associated with the two spirit is | native societies of North America |
| omen's hunting among the Agata illustrates that demands of child rearing can be | adapted to economic needs |
| rise of plow agriculture has generally __ women's status | lowered |
| Margaret Mead was an important early cultural anthropologist who emphasized the importance of | culture in gender behavior |
| early critic of private/public dichotomy as key to women's status; widespread male dominant attributed to economic factors; comparative examination of foraging/horticultural societies | Ernestine Friedl |
| Friedl noted key factor in women's status was degree to which they __ distribution & exchange of goods/services outside of __ __ | controlled; domestic unit |
| Friedl argued that in foraging societies because men exercised control over __ __ __ in larger community that gave them more power & status in society | distribution of meat |
| Friedl argued that in horticultural societies men cleared land, thus in position to control __ __ __, putting them in higher position of power | allocation of land |
| Friedl suggested that because care of small children can be shared within group women's low status cannot be explained in their | obligations in child rearing |
| cultural norms regarding family size & systems of child care are arranged to conform with | women's productive work |
| Montagnais egalitarian before European contact demonstrating European expansion led to gender inequalities | Eleanor Leacock |
| Leacock's work led to greater focus on changes in gender relations wrought by | European encounter |
| controlled cross-cultural comparison to ascertain whether male dominance was universal & if not under what conditions it emerged | Peggy Sanday |
| Sanday concluded that male dominance correlated with | ecological stress & warfare |
| Sanday showed that where survival of group rests on more male actions, such as warfare, women __ male dominance for sake of __ & __ __ | accept; social; cultural survival |
| women make important economic contribution to households through hunting; carry nursing infants on their backs during forest trips | Agta |
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lfrancois
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