AP II chp23
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| What does mitochondria consume to produce ATP? | O2 (oxygen)
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| Organisms must have mechanisms to obtain O2 from the environment and get rid of what? | CO2 (carbon dioxide)
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| What are functions of the repiratory system? | provides extensive gas exchange surface area between air&circulating blood;gas exchange; regulation of blood pH; voice production; olfaction; protection
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| What does the respiratory tract consist of? | conducting portion(from nasal cavity to terminal bronchioles) and repiratory portion(the respiratory bronchioes and alveoli)
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| components of the respiratory defense system | mucous cells and mucous gland(produce mucous that bathes exposed surfaces); cilia(mucous escalator); filtration(removes large particles);alveolar macrophages(engulf small particles)
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| pharynx | chamber shared by digestive and respiratory systems; extends from internal nares to entrances to larynx and esophagus; air flow
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| cartilage functions | thyroid and cricoid cartilages support and protect the glottis and entrance to trachea; larynx is elevated and epiglottis folds back over glottis while swallowing(prevents entry of food and liquids into respiratory tract);produces sound
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| production of sound | air passing through glottis; vibrates vocal fold; produces sound waves
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| submucosa | beneath mucosa of trachea=contains mucous glands
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| respiratory epithelium | lining the respiratory tract, where it serves to moisten and protect the airways ie contains nucous cells
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| How many tracheal cartilages strengthen and protect airway | 15-20
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| hilum | where pulmonary nerves, blood vessels, lymphatics enter lung: anchored in meshwork of connective tissue
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| the root of the lung | complex of connective tissues, nerves and vessels in hilum; anchored to the mediastinum
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| what is the shape of the right lung? | wider and displaced upward by liver
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| what is the shape of the left lung? | longer and displaced leftward by the heart forming the CARDIAC NOTCH
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| the bronchial tree | formed by the primary bronchi and their branches:extrapulmonary bronchi, intrapulmonary bronchi
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| EXTRApulmonary bronchi | the left and right bronchi brances OUTSIDE THE LUNGS
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| INTRApulmonary bronchi | branches WITHIN THE LUNGS
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| bronchitis | inflammation of bronchial walls; causes constriction and breathing difficulty
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| Each tertiary bronchus branches into multiple what? | bronchioles
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| bronchioles branch into what? | terminal bronchioles
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| bronchiole structure | have NO cartilage; dominated by SMOOTH MUSCLE
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| autonomic control | regulates smooth muscle; controls diameter of bronchioles; controls airflow and resistance in lungs
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| bronchodilation | dilation of bronchial airways; caused by sympathetic ANS activation; reduces resistance
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| bronchoconstriction | contricts bronchi; caused by parasympathetic ANS activation; histamine release (allergic reactions)
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| respiratory bronchioles are connected to alveoli along what? | alveolar ducts
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| alveolar ducts end at what? | alveolar sacs(common chambers connected to many individual alveoli)
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| alveoli | extensive network of capillaries; surrounded by elastic fibers
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| alveolar epithelium | consists of: simple squamous epithelium, thin, delicate pneumocytes type I; patrolled by alveolar macrophages(dust cells); contains pneumocytes type II(septal cells) that produce surfactant
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| type I cells Of alveoli | gas exchange
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| type II cells of alveoli | surfactant secretion
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| surfactans | decrease the work of breathing; decrease the surface tension-->decreases the resistance of the lung to stretch ie. the work
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| type II epithelial cells secrete: | surfactant from lamellar bodies (LBs) into thin layer of alveolar surface liquid lining the alveoli
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| What is an oily secretion and contains phospholipids and proteins? | surfactants
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| what are the 3 layers of the respiratory membrane? | squamous epithelial lining of alveolus; endothelial cells lining an adjacent capillary; fused basal lamiae between alveolar and endothelial cells
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| respiratory membrane | thin membrane of alveoli where gas exchange takes place
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| What is the diffusion across repiratory membrane? why? | very rapid; b/c distance is short, gases are lipid soluble
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| pneumonia | inflammation of lobules; causes fluid to leak into alveoli; compromises function of repiratory membrane
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| the Fick equation | J = -DAdC/dx (J=rate of diffusion[moles/sec];D=diffusion coefficient;A=area of the membrane;dC=concentration gradient;dx=diffusion distance)
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| external respiration | includes all processes involved in exchanging O2 and CO2 with the environment
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| internal respiration | aka cellular respiration; involves the uptake of O2 and production of CO2 within individual cells
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| what are the 3 processes of external respiration | 1)pulmonary ventilation(breathing);2)gas diffusion-across membranes and capillaries;3)transport of O2 and CO2:between alveolar capillaries, between capillary beds in other tissues
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| pulmonary ventilation | the physical movement of air in and out of respiratory tract; provides alveolar ventilation
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| bulk flow | mass movement of water or air as the result of pressure gradients
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| respiratory systems use changes in what to cause changes in pressure? | volume
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| what are the physical properties of lungs? | compliance(indicatior of expandability);elasticity(tendency to return to intial size after distension)
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| what muscle is the regulation of air flow? | smooth muscle
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| if we increase the diameter of bronchodilation what will happen to the resistance?(increase/decrease) | decrease
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| air moves from what pressure to what pressure? | high to low
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| atmospheric pressure is the pressure of the air where the body? | outside the body
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| intra-alveolar pressure is the pressure: | inside the alveoli of the lungs
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| intrapleural pressure is always: | below atmospheric pressure
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| intrapleural pressure is the pressure within the:; pressure is what, due to lack of air in the intrapleural space? | within the pleural cavity; negative
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| what are the 3 different pressures of the lungs? | 1)atmospheric pressure 2)intra-alveolar pressure 3)intrapleural pressure
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| air moves into and out of the lungs along: | pressure gradients that are the result of volume changes
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| intrapulmonary pressure | pressure inside lung decreases as lung volume increases
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| intrapleural pressure | pressure becomes more negative as chest wall expands
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| inhalation is always: | active
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| exhalation is: | active or passive
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| quiet breathing(eupnea) | involves active inhalation and passive exhalation
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| diaphragmatic breathing(deep breathing) | dominated by diaphragm
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| costal breathing(shallow breathing) | dominated by ribcage movements
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| forced breathing(hyperpnea) | involves active inhalation and exhalation; assisted by accessory muscles; maximum levels occur in exhaustion
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| respiratory mucosa lines which portion of the respiratory system? | conducting portion
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| respiratory mucosa consists of: | epithelial layer; areolar layer called the lamina propria(supports the respiratory epthelium; trachea and bronchi=contains mucous glands;conducting portion of lower respiratory system=contains smooth muscle cells)
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| Law of LaPlace equation: | P=2T/r (pressure=2xTension/radius)
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| If you increase radius in the Law of LaPlace equation how is the pressure inward effected? | decreases
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| if you decrease tension in the Law of LaPlace equation how is the pressure inward effected? | decreases
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| what is the measure of solubility(measure of how easy something diffuses) in the fick equation? | D
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| Rate of diffusion will be greates when the ___, ___, and pressure gradients(__) are large, but the diffusion distance is ___ | diffusion coefficient (D); area of the membrane(A); dC/dx; small
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| gas exchange surfaces are typically: | thin with a large surface area
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| What are the 3 mechanics of breathing? | 1)diaphragm 2)external intercostal muscles 3) accessory muscles assist in elevating ribs
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| diaphragm | contraction draws air into lungs
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| external intercostal muscles | assist inhalation
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| accessory muscles assist in elevating ribs | sternocleidomastoid, serratus anterior, pectoralis minor and scalene muscles
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| muscles of active exhalation | internal intercostal and trasversus thoracis muscle(depress the ribs); abdominal muscles(comproess the abdomen and force diaphragm upward)
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| gas exchange depends on: | partial pressures of the gases; diffusion of molecules between gas and liquid
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| in gas exchange, diffusion occurs in response to: | pressure gradients
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| in gas exchange, rate of diffusion depends on: | physical principles or gas laws
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| What is the ideal gas law equation? | PV = nRT
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| Dalton's Law and Partial Pressures | in a gas mixture each gas exerts its own PARTIAL PRESSURE that sum to the total pressure of the mixture
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| What is Henry's Law equation? | [G] = P(gas) X S(gas)
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| Henry's Law | when a gas under pressure comes in contact w/ liquid, the gas dissolves in liquid until equilibrium is reached; simply put:gases have to dissolve in liquid before the diffuse
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| CO2 is much more soluble in water than is O2. Thus, at the same partial pressure, more __ will be dissolved. | CO2
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| Graham's law | relative diffusion of a given gas is proportional to its solubility in the liquid and inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular weight;basically big things take longer to diffuse
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| What is the Graham's law equation? | Diffusion rate is proportional to solubility/the root of molecular weight
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| by combining Fick, Henry's and Graham's, you get: | diffusion rate is proportional to partial pressure gradient X cross-sectional area X solubility of gas in fluid/diffusion distance X the root of molecular weight
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| If surface area is decreased, what will happen to diffusion rate? | decreases
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| Efficiency of gas exchange due to: | differences in partial pressure; distances are short; O2 and CO2 are lipid soluble; total surface area is large; blood flow and airflow are coordinated
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| metalloproteins contain metal ions which: | reversibly bind to oxygen and increase oxygen carrying capacity by 50-fold
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| Why can only a small amount of oxygen dissolve in blood? | b/c of the low solubility of oxygen in aqueous solutions
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| PO2 is equal in plasma and lungs but oxygen content of plasma is: | much lower
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| If an oxygen carrier such as hemoglobin is present, some of the oxygen will bind to the: | pigment
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| When hemoglobin binds to oxygen, does oxygen wants or does not want to diffuse in blood? | wants to diffuse in blood
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| What does the oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve show the relationship between? | partial and pressure of oxygen in the plasma and the percentage of oxygenated respiratory pigment
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| As partial pressure (decreases/increases), more and more pigment molecules will bind oxygen, until the saturation point | increases
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| P50 | oxygen partial pressure at which the pigment is 50% saturated
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| in the higher level of the saturation curve, is it loading or unloading and where? | loading oxygen to the lungs
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| in the lower level of the saturation curve, is it loading or unloading and where? | unloading oxygen into blood
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| What has a lower P50 than hemoglobin? But has higher oxygen affinity. | myoglobin
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| Hemoglobin curve is ____. Myoglobin curve is ____. | sigmoidal; hyperbolic
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| What changes shape each time a molecule of O2 is bound? | hemoglobin
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| ____ only binds one O2. | myoglobin
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| When you have a lower P50, do you have a higher or lower affinity? | higher affinity
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| What are the environmental factors affecting hemoglobin? | Po2 of blood;blood pH;temperature; metabolic activity within RBCs; carbon monoxide(CO)
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| T/F: Hemoglobin is not a metalloprotein | false. it is
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| In the oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve, when pH drops or temperature rises more or less oxygen is released? | more oxygen is released
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| in the oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve, when pH rises or temperature drops more or less oxygen is released? | less oxygen is released
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| Name the effect of pH on hemoglobin-saturation curve? | the Bohr effect
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| RBCs generate ATP by: | glycolysis forming lactic acid and DPG
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| DPG directly affects O2 binding and release, meaning: | more DPG, more oxygen released
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| T/F: the structure of fetal hemoglobin differs from that of adult hemoglobin. | true
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| T/F: At the same Po2 Fetal Hb binds less O2 than adult Hb | false, fetal Hb binds more
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| allows fetus to take O2 from what kind of blood? | maternal blood
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| BONUS: the root effect allows fish to: | float(buoyant)
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| Oxygen dissolved in plasma (Po2 of plasma) is influenced by: | composition of inspired air, alveolar ventilation, oxygen diffusion between alveoli and blood, adequate perfusion of alveoli
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| What are the effects of alveolar ventilation? | rate and depth of breathing, lung compliance, airway resistance
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| What are the effects of oxygen diffusion between alveoli and blood? | surface area, diffusion distance(:membrane thickness, amount of interstitial fluid)
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| Which 2 that influence oxygen dissolved in plasma does not lead to anything? | composition of inspired air, adequate perfusion of alveoli
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| oxygen dissolved in plasma helps determine: | % saturation of Hb
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| % saturation of Hb is affected by: | PCO2, pH, temperature, DPG
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| How do you get the total number of binding sites? | (Hb content per RBC) X (number of RBCs)
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| How do you get oxygen bound to Hb? | (% saturation of Hb) X (total number of binding sites)
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| What is generated as a by-product of aerobic metabolism(cellular respiration)? | CO2
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| What is more soluble in body fluids than oxygen? | carbon dioxide
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| How much of CO2 is transported(dissolved) in the plasma? | little CO2
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| T/F: All CO2 binds to proteins | false, some CO2 bind
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| What is mostly tranpsorted as bicarbonate (catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase)? | most CO2
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| What is the main point of Henry's law? | CO2 dissolved
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| Which curve shows the relationship between PCO2 and the total CO2 content of the blood? | carbon dioxide equilibrium curve
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| What is the Haldane effect? | deoxygenated blood can carry more CO2 than oxygenated blood
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| Removal of oxygen from hemoglobin in the carbon dioxide equilibrium curve (increases/decreases) hemoglobin's affinity for carbon dioxide | increases
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