Cogsci Exam #3
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| Cognitive psychology | the scientific study of cognition or our mental processes
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| How language contribute to study of mind | Communication
Express what’s going on w/ one’s self
Humans are the only ones who can use words that make up language
Frame thoughts
Explains the internal stuff
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| Mental representations → | language actual window into mental processes
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| To understand the mind → | language is essential
- Provide the window into cognition
- Provides insights into internal workings of the mind (express what’s happening in the mind- internal stuff)
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| Language “labels” | used to explain our mental representations + understand others mental representations
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| Field of language studies syntax + semantics | provide insight into thinking, decision making, etc
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| syntax | sentence strucuture
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| semantics | meaning behind words
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| recursive relationship between language + the mind | Language is created by the mind → gets expressed → returns to the mind to be understood
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| Broca's aphasia | broken grammar/ speech
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| Vernicese aphasia | word salad w/ no structure/ this relationship is broken/ mix up of words
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| Formal Study of Language (2 types) | 1. Linguistics
2. Psycholinguistics
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| Linguistics | study of language for its structure + characteristics
- Language → set of all acceptable (grammatical) sentences
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| Psycholinguistics | study of language as its learned + used
- Language → shared symbolic system for communication
- Language evolves/ always evolving
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| Basic Units of Language (1) | Phoneme= smallest unit of sound in a language
- 44 phonemes for English (from 26 letters)
- 9 of the phonemes are used for half of our words
Diagraph
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| Basic Units of Language (2) | Phonology= study of combination of phonemes in a language (how they can combine)
- EX: for “ough” → how many diff pronunciation (cough, through, tough, dough, ought, thought)
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| Basic Units of Language (3) | Morpheme= smallest unit of meaning
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| Grammatical morphemes | prefixes (re- means again) + suffixes (- ed means in the past) + articles (the) + conjunctions (and- connect words) + prepositions (of)
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| Content morphemes | actual words that cannot be reduced any further + still carry meaning (EX: dog)
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| Basic Units of Language (4) | Morphology= study of the combination of morphemes
- EX: talked (ed- past) (talk- content) → 2 morphemes
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| Basic Units of Language (5) | Phrases= combination of groups of words
- Combination of morphemes
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| Basic Units of Language (6) | Sentences= combination of phrases
- Combine sentences= paragraphs
- Combine paragraphs= book
- Combine books= triology
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| Universal of Lang (1) | Symbolic= represented by symbols (arbitrary- symbols could be anything)
- Symbols are inherently EMPTY (we give meaning to them)
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| Universal of Lang (2) | Semanticity= symbols become meaningful through use
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| Universal of Lang (3) | Grammar (syntax)= set of rules to produce all acceptable (grammatical) sentences
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| Prescriptive rules | need to do it this way (how we ought to speak + write) → linguist
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| Descriptive rules | governing actual language use → psycholinguist
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| Generative | finite (preestablished) set of symbols (26 letters of alphabet)/ rules that can generate an infinite number of sentences/ ideas (always produce something new from born til death)
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| Communicative | used to communicate/ share thoughts/ ideas (mental representations)
→ Language provides the labels of these mental representations
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| Skinner | Learning a language → acquiring a set of behavioral dispositions (set of ways to behave) --> through OC
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| Chomsky | Lang= too complex for OC to explain
Lang= can’t be conditioned → through childhood minimal explicit language (not sat down and explicitly taught your language)
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| Language is stimulus-independent | don’t need a stimulus (can say whatever pops into your head) → independent of the stimulus asked
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| Language is historically unbound | not tied to anything/ what is said is NOT determined by history of reinforcement
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| Linguistic behaviors cannot be controlled | Any word, sentence, etc is POSSIBLE + understand it without ever hearing it before
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| Language module= | INNATE cognitive system
- Innate linguistic knowledge (rules + principles of language)
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| Innate knowledge of grammar | auxiliary verb movement (anything that is not an action verb/ in english it can move in a sentence) →
- EX: Jacob is hungry today → sentence: Is Jacob hungry today?
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| H1 (hypothesis) | find the first occurrence of “is” in the sentence and move it to the front → can only swap the subject and the auxiliary verb
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| H2 (hypothesis) | find the first occurrence of is following NP (noun phrase) and move it to the front
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| Arguments for Language Innateness 1 | Species specific → only humans have language
- Animals have complicated systems of communication, but not language bc not generative
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| Arguments for Language Innateness 2 | Ease + Speed of language acquisition (fast)
- Acquiring complex grammatical skills without direct teaching → critical period of learning
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| Mere exposure | simply learned/ induce by listening/ exposed to language all the time without being taught
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| Arguments for Language Innateness 3 | Uniformity
- Children acquire language through the SAME stages at approx. the SAME time → must be innately determined
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| Arguments for Language Innateness 4 | Neurological separation
- Diff brain areas/ circuits for language vs. non-language information
- Certain brain areas will light up during lang tasks/ light up during non-lang tasks
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| Arguments for Language Innateness 5 | Language universals
- Similarities across languages; languages are “essentially identical”
- Argue language has different rules/ structures= so they are all unique/ can’t be identical
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| Arguments for Language Innateness 6 | Poverty (lacking) of the stimulus argument
- Most powerful argument for UG
- Children could not have acquired lang from the noisy, incomplete input available → however, passive observation still can learn lang
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| Arguments Against Universal Grammar 1 | Against “language universals” → too diverse; 5000-8000 languages
- Universals cannot be independent of human culture → many cultures have diff labels for things (too diverse)
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| Arguments Against Universal Grammar 2 | Against “poverty of stimuli proposal”
- Considerable evidence parents DO provide constant feedback → may not explicitly say why, but extract rules implicitly + extract those rules on one’s own
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| Arguments Against Universal Grammar 3 | Against “innateness” of UG through genes/ natural selection
- Too short a time frame → evolution is slow process for enviro to select things for species to move forward
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| Semantics | formal study of meaning of words, sentences, higher level discourse
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| Circular definition | try to define meaning, find self running in a circle
- EX: Meaning: something that is signified
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| Words used to define words | Symbols that are inherently empty
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| Words will change meaning in context | Words mean diff things in various complex contexts
- EX: the diamond cut the glass (sharp) vs. the diamond reflected the sun (shiny)
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| The meaning of individual words does NOT equal the meaning of the overall larger sentence | Currently no good theory of grammar= no good theory of semantics
- EX: The cop raised his hand, and the car stopped
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| Language & Thoughts | Language will influence our thinking
Derive meaning from non-lingusitc cues (facial expressions)
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| Thought | is a single product of thinking
--> conceived in the mind
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| Lexicalizaed | form, express, accept as (a word) in vocab of lang
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| Grammaticalized | words can be stringed together by grammar (conjugation of the verb)
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| Eventdentially | grammatical parts give you evidence → tell u what’s going on
- Words can capture meaning of whole description
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| Mentalese | language of thought and diff from spoken/ written language that comes out on paper/ more then the labels
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| Language FORMS ideas | new concepts come into existence bc of language
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| Lingusitic Relativity Hypothesis (Sapir Whorf Hypothesis) | 1. Weaker Form → language shapes or influences our thoughts
2. Stronger Form → language determines thoughts
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| Weaker form (1) | → framing of a question will get the better otucome/ influence the decision
Power of words → EX: belief of “he” is generic → it isn’t
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| Stronger form (1) | → language determines our perception of the world/ the language limits this perception (determine perception of the world)
→ language determines reality
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| Weaker form (2) | linguistic relativity
→ language does NOT determine reality → OBJECTIVE reality exists
→ language only shapes/ influences how we perceive the world
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| linguistic relativity | (Sapir)- proposes that language only influences thoughts/ perception of reality
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| Stronger form (2) | linguistic determinism
→ reality is perceived through the medium of language
→ SUBJECTIVE realities
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| linguistic determinism | language determines thoughts/ will determine reality
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| Perception | creating an internal mental representation of the external world
- allows us to create mental representations
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| Field of sensation + perception | studied by physics
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| Visual Perception of Objects | 1. Don’t see things that are THERE
2. See things are NOT there
3. See things that are IMPOSSIBLE or CANNOT BE
4. See things that are AMBIGUOUS
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| Feature | a basic property of an object
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| Analysis of features | Visual neurons → feature detectors (Hubel & Wiesel)
- bar detectors
- other specialized cells= edges, curves, color, size, shape, direction of movement
- Perception of visual field is more than just visual features
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| Visual Segregation | beyond analysis of stimuli
- Grouping + organizing overall visual scene
- spatial relationships amongst objects
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| Gestalt psychology | Whole is greater than the sum of its parts
- Use Gestalt laws to organize visual info (proximity, similarity, good continuation, closure)
- figure / ground separation → separating figure from ground
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| Extracting Depth for 3D Representation of World | Constructing a 3D representation of the world
- Depth cues used to extract/ construct depth
- Convergence
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| Convergence | (sensation of) eye converging on an object
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| Retinal disparity (stereopsis) | External image falls on doff parts of the retina
Creating different retinal images; superimposed in the occipital lobe
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| Interposition | closer objects blocks out farther object
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| Linear perspective | parallel lines appear to converge in distance
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| Texture gradient | roughness of a surface; closer surface stands out
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| Object Recognition | 3D objects composed of “geons”
Geometric ions → basic building blocks of all objects
- geons formed from features= lines, angles, curves
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| Geons have 3 properties | 1. high distinctiveness
2. view invariance
3. resistance to visual "noise"
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| High distinctiveness | can always tell one geon from another
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| View invariance | can be identified from different angles/ rotation
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| Resistance to visual “noise” | can be identified when incomplete
- Visual noise= picture may not be finished, but can still be recognized
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| Face Recognition (2 systems) | 1. Part-based system
2. Holistic configurational system
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| Part-based system | specalizing in the recognition if an object’s parts (features/ geons) (eyes, nose, ears, eyebrows → no problem recognizing)
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| Holistic configurational system | specalizing in structural relationships amongst individual features
- Spatial more hard recognizing bc everything in specific images are scrambled
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| Face recognition relies on both | The fusaform face area of temporal lobe
More difficult to detect feature when upside down
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| Bottom-up processing | recognition is achieved by analyzing the stimulus/ input only
- used for NEW experiences
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| Top-down processing | recognition is guided/ sped by stored knowledge
→ used AFTER experience → after experiencing something → it does it
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| Form perception | process of perceiving basic shape/ size of an object
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| Object recognition | process of identifying what the object is
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| Ataxia | inability to reach out/ grab objects
- Damage to parietal lobe
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| Akinetopsia | inability to perceive motion
- Series of snapshots
- Damage to temporal-parietal cortices
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| Agnosia | inability to recognize objects
- Damage to temporal lobe
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| Prosopagnosia | inability to recognize faces
- Can recognize objects
- Damage to fusaform face area of temporal lobe
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| Neglect syndrome | person ignores half of the visual word
- Damage to parietal lobe
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| Illusions | perception of object conflicts w/ actual physical dimensions
- Conflicts between bottom-up + top-down processes
- Illusions of shape, size, color, brightness, motion
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| Attention | Concentration of mental effort on sensory events (from environment) + mental events
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| Complex tasks | acquire a lot of attention, but can become automatic → autotization → due to practice or repeition
→ EX: driving or reading
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| Selective Attention | There is only so much that can be attended to
- select things to pay attention to, but miss the other things
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| Inattention blindness | the failure to notice a fully visible stimulus right in the visual scene
- Primary task captures your attention → another OBVIOUS object is NOT noticed
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| Change blindness | failure to detect changes in the visual scene because of some disruptions or after a disruption
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| Auvray & O'Regan (2003) | Green pepper video w/ coin study
--> inattention blindness
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| Simon & Chabris (1999) | Gorilla + basketball video- 15 passes/ gorilla passes by through circle
- 50% subjects missed gorilla
--> inattention blindness
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| Simons (2010) | Monkey business- 16 passes (white + black shirts), gorilla passes through, curtains change color, player leaves
--> inattention blindness
--> lower % when expecting gorilla to see anything else
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| Advertisment for Mayor Office in London | Who-dun-it (21 things changed)
--> change blindess
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| Attention is a resource w/ limited capacity | finite “pool” of attention → focuses across all things/ use attention for multiple things
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| Attention is distributed across different activities | Division of attention vs. selection → divide attention up to devote attention elsewhere
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| Components of Kahneman’s Model | 1. Available capacity
2. Allocation policy
3. Enduring dispositions
4. Momentary intentions
5. Possible Activities
6. Evaluation of demands on capacity
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| Available Capacity | pool of available attention
- Filled by level of arousal → physiological activation
- moderate arousal= best → too low (tired) or too high (anxious)
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| Miscellaneous determinants | affect capacity → feed into it or decrease it
- EX: enough sleep= increase attention, not enough sleep= decrease attention
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| Miscellaneous manifestations | draw away capacity → draining ONLY
- Eats up your attention/ drains pool of attention
- EX: finger tapping, fidgeting, etc.
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| Allocation Policy | executive/ decision maker
- Determines division of attention over diff tasks
- YOU determine where to divide attention, but don’t decide everything
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| Enduring Dispositions | automatic influences requiring attention
- Something captures your attention instantly/ can’t ignore it
- EX: sudden movement or new event
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| Momentary Intentions | conscious decision to attend to something
- Specific goal(s) of the moment --> it is an impulse that pops in
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| Possible Activities | actual division of attention over tasks
- Leads to diff responses
- EX: when someone is explaining something, divert attention to hand gestures, which leads to possible activities while having attention on others things
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| Evaluation of Demands on Capacity | progress of activities?
- EX: study for exam, expertise, automatic vs controlled processing, etc
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| Memory | cognitive processes of encoding, storage, retrieval of information
- creation of mental representation → we store the memory to process it → but store those mental representations
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| 3 memory processes | 1. encoding
2. storage
3. retrieval
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| Encoding | how does info get in? --> get it through senses, get in STM by attention
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| Storage | maintaining the information → capacity, duration, representation
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| Capacity | how much can be held
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| Duration | how long can it last
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| Representation | formed of stored memory
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| Retrieval | getting information out
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| Atkinson & Shiffrin Model (1968) | Proposed that there are 3 memory sub-systems that are arranged in stages
Also known as a mulit-store model
Uses information process approach
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| Iconic memory | associated w/ visual system
- duration= 0.5-1 sec
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| Echoic memory | associated w/ auditory system
- duration= 1.5- 5 sec
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| interference | competition of past vs. current information
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| retroactive interference | current info what is being learned now interfers with what have been learned in the past
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| proactive interference | old info interfers w/ new info
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| AVOID interferences (spacing effect) | NOT cram all info at once/ divide and conquer
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| Available | info in LTM is there
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| Accessible | can you get it
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| Retriveal cue | a reminder of the info (words, images, objects, situations)
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