Nutrition, blood, cardiovascular system
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| total of all chemical reactions that occur in the body | metabolism
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| energy-releasing processes that break larger molecules down to smaller molecules | catabolism
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| energy-requiring processes that join small molecules together to form larger molecules | anabolism
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| energy in carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins is used to produce _____ | ATP
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| 2 types of ATP synthesis from glucose | Anaerobic respiration and aerobic respiration
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| 2 step of anaerobic respiration | Glycolysis, lactic acid fermentation
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| 3 steps of aerobic respiration | Glycolysis, Kreb's cycle, electron transport system
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| Glycolysis involves producing _______ from 1 glucose molecule | 2 ATP, 2CO2, 2NADH
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| Kreb's cycle involves producing ________ from 2 pyruvates (from glycolysis) | 2 ATP, 4CO2, 8NADH, 2FADH
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| Electron Transport chain involves producing _________ from 10NADH, 2FADH, and 6O2 | 32-34 ATP, 6H2O
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| Fatty acids undergo _______ and enter the cycle known as ________ | Beta-oxidation, acetyl-CoA
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| Breakdown of fats produces ________ | Ketone bodies
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| Ketone bodies may build up causing: | Ketoacidosis
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| If used for energy, amino acids must first undergo _______ | deamination
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| deamination is the removal of _____ group | NH2
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| deamination produces ______ that must be converted to urea for excretion | ammonia
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| excretion occurs via ______ but excess amounts are a problem for individuals with renal disease | kidneys
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| amino acids are not stored in body, so excess are converted to _____ | fat
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| Results from a deficiency in an enzyme involved in catabolism of the amino acid phenylalanine | Phenylketonuria
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| A high level of ________ interferes with normal development of nervous system and severe mental retardation may result | Phenylalanine
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| Process in which excess glucose is converted to glycogen | glycogenesis
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| Process in which glucose and amino acids are converted to lipids when glycogen stores are full | Lipogenesis
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| Breakdown of glycogen to glucose | Glycogenolysis
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| formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate molecules | Gluconeogenesis
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| 2 metabolic states | absorptive state and postabsorptive state
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| Period immediately after eating when nutrients are absorbed and enter the circulatory and lymphatic systems (~4 hrs after meal) | Absorptive state
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| Occurs after absorptive state when blood glucose levels must be maintained by conversion of other molecules to glucose | Postabsorptive state
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| Total amount of energy produced and used by the body per minute | Metabolic rate
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| Metabolic rate correlates with amount of _____ used | O2
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| energy used at rest | basal metabolic rate
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| basal metabolic rate makes up ~ ___% of metabolic rate | 60
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| energy used to digest and absorb food | thermic effect of food
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| thermic effect of food makes up ~ __ % of metabolic rate | 10
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| energy used for muscle contraction | muscular activity
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| muscular activity makes up ~ ___ % of metabolic rate | 30
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| chemicals used by body to produce energy, to provide building blocks, or to function in other chemical reactions | Nutrients
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| two classes of nutrients | macronutrients and micronutrients
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| Required in large amounts | Macronutrients
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| Required in small amounts | Micronutrients
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| Examples of macronutrients (4) | Carbs, proteins, lipids, and water)
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| Examples of micronutrients (2) | Vitamins and minerals
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| Any nutrient that must be ingested and cannot be synthesized in adequate amounts | Essential nutrient
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| Some essential nutrients are: (6) | water, some amino acids, some fatty acids, most vitamins and minerals, a few carbohydrates
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| measure of energy supplied by food and released through cellular metabolism | Kilocalories (Calories)
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| RDA for carbohydrates | 45-65% of total daily intake
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| most carbohydrates come from | plants
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| 3 classes of carbohydrates | Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides
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| ______ and _______ are converted to glucose, kept as glycogen, or converted to fats | disaccharides, polysaccharides
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| RDA of lipids | 30% or less of daily intake
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| two classes of lipids | triglycerides (fats) and cholesterol
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| Lipids used for energy or stored in adipose tissue | triglycerides
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| two types of triglycerides (fats) | saturated fats and unsaturated fats
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| Examples of saturated fats | Meats, whole milk
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| Examples of unsaturated fats | Vegetable oils
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| Found in liver and egg yolks, but will be made from triglycerides | Cholesterol
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| Essential fatty acids found in seeds, nuts, legumes, grains, and green leaves | Linoleic acids
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| RDA of proteins | 10-35% of daily intake
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| All proteins are broken into ______ which are classified as essential or nonessential | Amino acids
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| Proteins that contain all of the necessary amino acids | Complete proteins
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| Examples of complete proteins | All meats, milk, cheese, and eggs
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| Organic nutrients required in small amounts to make enzymes function and maintain growth and normal metabolism | Vitamins
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| Some vitamins are _____ and some can be made | essential
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| two classes of vitamins | fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins
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| Vitamins stored in fat tissue | Fat-soluble vitamins
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| Vitamins in which excess is excreted | Water-soluble vitamins
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| Examples of fat-soluble vitamins | A, D, E, K
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| Examples of water-soluble vitamins | B, C, etc.
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| Prevent formation of free radicals in the body | Antioxidants
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| Inorganic elements necessary for normal metabolism | Minerals
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| Minerals are obtained from | Plant and animal sources
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| Some minerals attached to _____ are difficult to absorb | Plant fibers
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| Functions of minerals in body (5) | Nerve conduction, osmotic balance, bone/teeth structure, buffering systems, hemoglobin structure
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| The cardiovascular system consists of | Heart, blood vessels, blood
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| Pumps blood through blood vessels | Heart
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| System of tubes that distribute blood throughout body | Blood vessels
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| Liquid that carries oxygen, nutrients, wastes, etc. to all body clles | Blood
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| 7 functions of blood | Transport of gases, nutrients, waste products, transport of processed molecules, transport of regulatory molecules, maintenance of body temp, regulation of pH, protection against foreign substances, clot formation
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| Regulatory molecules transported in blood | Hormones and enzymes
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| In blood, buffers maintain ____, ions and protein maintain __________ | pH, osmotic pressure
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| ______ and ________ in blood protect against foreign substances | White blood cells, antibodies
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| Blood makes up ~ __ % of total body weight | 8
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| Blood volume in females | 4-5L
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| Blood volume in males | 5-6 L
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| Liquid extracellular matrix of blood | Plasma
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| plasma is 91% _____ and 9% _____ | water, solutes
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| 3 proteins in blood plasma | albumins, globulins, fibrinogen
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| maintain viscosity and osmotic pressure, buffers, transport fatty acids, bilirubin, and thyroid hormones | albumins
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| transport lipids, carbohydrates, hormones, ions, antibodies, and complement proteins | globulins
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| involved in clotting | fibrinogen
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| nutrients in blood plasma | glucose, amino acids, cholesterol, triacylglycerol, vitamins, and water
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| waste products created from the breakdown of protein (4) | urea, uric acid, creatinine, ammonia salts
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| waste product created from breakdown of RBC's | bilirubin
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| waste product that is a byproduct of anaerobic respiration | lactic acid
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| Ions in blood plasma (10) | Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe3+, Cl2-, PO4 2-, H+, OH-, HCO3-
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| gases in blood plasma | oxygen, carbon dioxide, inert nitrogen
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| Includes cells and cell fragments found suspended in plasma | Formed elements
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| Small cellular fragments in blood | Platelets
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| Disease of the liver which results when healthy liver tissue is replaced by scar tissue | Cirrhosis
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| Causes of cirrhosis | Cancer, alcoholism, viral hepatitis
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| Cirrhosis results in progressive decrease in production of _______ which results in fluid loss to extracellular spaces producing severe edema in the abdomen | Plasma proteins
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| Cirrhosis also causes a decrease in _________ levels which leads to easy bruising and delayed clotting which may be fatal | Clotting factor
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| Typical erythrocyte is a ________ disc | Biconcave
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| Mature erythrocyte cells are ________ to create room in the cytosol for enzymes and hemoglobin proteins | anucleate
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| Iron in each heme group is oxidized when hemoglobin binds to oxygen and forms: | Oxyhemoglobin
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| When O2 levels are low, hemoglobin binds to CO2 forming: | Carbaminohemoglobin
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| Process of blood cell production that takes place in red bone marrow | Hematopoiesis
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| Hematopoiesis is produced by __________ | Hematopoietic stem cells
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| 5 types of hematopoietic stem cells | Proerythroblasts, myeloblasts, lymphoblasts, monoblasts, megakaryblasts
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| Hematopoietic stem cell that become RBC's | Proerythroblasts
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| Hematopoietic stem cell that become neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils | Myeloblasts
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| Hematopoietic stem cell that becomes lymphocytes | Lymphoblasts
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| Hematopoietic stem cell that becomes monocytes | Monoblasts
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| Hematopoietic stem cell that becomes platelets | Megakaryblasts
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| Produces erythrocytes in about 5-7 days to replace cells | Erythropoiesis
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| RBC's live about ___ days | 120
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| Progenitor cells become _________ when erythropoietin (EPO) from kidneys is present | proerythroblasts
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| Erythroblasts synthesize ________ | Hb (hemoglobin)
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| ________ in the bloodstream eject the nucleus | Reticulocytes
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| During erythrocyte death, hemoglobin is broken down into: | Globin chains and heme
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| Erythrocyte death: iron is released from the heme, which is converted to ______ then ________ | biliverdin, bilirubin
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| Iron is transported to liver or bone marrow by protein called: | transferrin
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| Common condition defined as a decrease in the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood | Anemia
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| What kind of anemia results from vitamin B12 deficiency? | Pernicious anemia
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| What kind of anemia results from infections or poisoning that destroys erythrocytes? | Hemolytic anemia
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| What kind of anemia results from radiation inhibiting erythrocyte production? | Aplastic anemia
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| 5 types of anemia | Iron deficiency anemia, pernicious anemia, hemolytic anemia, aplastic anemia, sickle cell anemia
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| Leukocytes use ______ for transportation | Bloodstream
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| Chemicals released by injured cells to attract leukocytes | Chemotaxis
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| Two types of leukocytes | Granulocytes and agranulocytes
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| Process by which leukocytes adhere to walls of blood vessels and squeeze between endothelial cells to enter surrounding tissue | Diapedesis
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| 3 types of granulocytes | Neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils
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| Most common leukocyte, actively phagocytizes bacterial cells | Neutrophils
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| Respond to infections with parasitic worms and allergic reactions | Eosinophils
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| Least common leukocyte, secretes heparin and mediates inflammation | Basophils
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| Two types of agranulocytes | Lymphocytes and monocytes
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| 2nd most common leukocyte, makes antibodies and destroys virally infected cells or cancer cells | Lymphocytes
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| Mature into macrophages and ingest dead/dying cells, bacteria, antigens, and other debris | Monocytes
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| Cell fragments surrounded by a plasma membrane, involved in clotting | Platelets
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| The complete arrest of bleeding | Hemostasis
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| 3 parts of hemostasis | Vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, coagulation
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| Part 1 of hemostasis, begins immediately when a blood vessel is injured and blood leaks into extracellular fluid | Vascular spasm (vasoconstriction)
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| Part 2 of hemostasis, has three steps (platelet adhesion, platelet activation, platelet aggregation) | Platelet plug formation
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| Platelets become "sticky" from von Willebrand factors and adhere to each other | platelet adhesion
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| Platelets release ATP, ADP, serotonin, calcium, thromboxanes, etc. that activate other platelets | Platelet activation
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| activated platelets bind fibrinogen which forms a "platelet plug" | Platelet aggregation
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| Part 3 of hemostasis, involves clotting factors in plasma that remain inactive until tissues are injured | Coagulation
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| 3 steps of coagulation | Activation of prothrombinase, conversion of prothrombin to thrombin, conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin
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| What happens during clot retraction? | Actin and myosin fibers in platelets contract which bring the edges of wounded vessel closer together
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| Removal of the clot, which involves breaking down the fibrin glue | Thrombolysis
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| 3 steps of fibrinolysis | Activation of plasminogen by tPA from endothelial cells, conversion of plasminogen to plasmin, plasmin degrades to fibrin and clot dissolves
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| 2 anticoagulants | heparin, warfarin
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| Anticoagulant that acts rapidly but must be injected | Heparin
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| Anticoagulant that can be given by mouth but takes days to become effective | Warfarin
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| Drug that inhibits platelet aggregation | aspirin
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| ____ is used to restore blood flow rapidly to prevent tissue damage when thrombi or emboli have caused stroke or heart attack | tPA
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| transfer of blood or blood components from one individual to another | Transfusion
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| Blood grouping is determined by ______ on the surface of RBC's | antigens
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| Agglutinins in blood | Antibodies
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| Main blood groups: | ABO and Rh
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| Only A antigen is present, anti-B antibodies | Type A blood
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| Only B antigen is present, anti-A antibodies | Type B blood
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| Both A and B antigens are present, no antibodies | Type AB blood
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| Neither A nor B antigens, both anti-A and anti-B antibodies | Type O blood
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| Functions of heart (5) | Generate blood pressure, route the blood, ensure one-way blood flow, regulate blood supply, produce hormones
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| The heart produces a hormone called: | Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
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| Situated to the left side in the thoracic cavity in the mediastinum and on the diaphragm | Heart
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| The heart is approximately the size of a fist and weighs: | 250-350 g
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| 2 layers of pericardium | fibrous pericardium, serous pericardium
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| Outer collagen layer of pericardium | Fibrous pericardium
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| Inner membrane of pericardium that produces serous fluid | Serous pericardium
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| Encases heart like a sac | parietal pericardium
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| Innermost layer of pericardium aka epicardium | Visceral pericardium
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| 3 layers of heart wall | epicardium, myocardium, endocardium
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| Outer surface of heart wall with connective tissue and epithelium | Epicardium
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| Cardiac muscle tissue layer of heart wall | Myocardium
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| Inner surface of epithelium that lines the chambers and continues into blood vessels | Endocardium
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| Right side of heart pumps blood to lungs through pulmonary arteries | Pulmonary circuit
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| Left side of heart pumps blood to rest of body through aorta | Systemic circuit
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| circulation that supplies the heart muscle | coronary circulation
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| deliver blood to heart muscle (branch from aorta) | coronary arteries
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| drain blood from heart muscle | coronary veins
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| systems of channels formed between blood vessels | anastomoses
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| results from buildup of fatty materials/plaques in coronary arteries | coronary artery disease (CAD)
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| occurs when plaques rupture and a clot obstructs blood flow to myocardium | Myocardial infarction/heart attack
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| Branched cells with large nucleus and striations made of actin and myosin myofilaments | Cardiac muscle cells
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| cytoplasm has a very high concentration of: | mitochondria and myoglobin
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| Permit communication between cardiac muscle cells | gap junctions
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| hold cardiac muscle cells together | desmosomes
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| heart does not require stimulation from nervous system to generate action potentials | autorhythmicity
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| cardiac electrical activity is coordinated by a small, unique population of cardiac muscle cells called: | pacemaker cells
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| conducted from cell to cell, not along a single fiber as in skeletal muscle | action potentials
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| Slower in cardiac muscle than skeletal muscle because of gap junctions | Action potential propagation
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| calcium moves into cell and stimulates release of calcium from sarcoplasmic reticulum | calcium-induced calcium release (CICR)
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| 3 types of gated ion channels in cardiac muscle | voltage gated sodium ion channels, potassium ion channels, calcium ion channels
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| open in response to voltage changes but not found in certain pacemaker cells | voltage-gated sodium ion channels
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| some are voltage gated and some are ligand gated | potassium ion channels
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| Not found in skeletal muscle, demonstrate voltage-gated opening but time-gated closing | calcium ion channels
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| 4 phases of electrophysiology | rapid depolarization phase, initial repolarization phase, plateau phase, repolarization phase
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| voltage-gated Na+ channels are activated and Na+ enters | Rapid depolarization phase
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| Na+ channels are inactivated and some K+ channels open | Initial repolarization phase
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| Ca2+ channels open and Ca2+ enters as K+ exits (causes refractory period) | Plateau phase
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| Na+ and Ca2+ channels close as K+ continues to exit | Repolarization phase
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| pacemaker that generates action potentials and passes them to AV node | sinoatrial (SA) node
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| passes action potentials to ventricles | AV node
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| passes AP's to the interventricular septum | AV bundle
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| Passes AP's to the ends of the R and L ventricles | R and L bundle branches
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| Pass AP's to ventricles | Purkinje fibers
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| record of electrical events in the myocardium that can be correlated with mechanical events | electrocardiogram
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| depolarization of atrial myocardium that signals the onset of atrial contraction | P wave
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| ventricular depolarization that signals the onset of ventricular contraction (repolarization of atria occurs simultaneously) | QRS complex
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| repolarization of ventricles that signals ventricular relaxation | T wave
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| Results from fluid vibrations and closure of AV valves at the beginning of ventricular systole | Heart sound 1 or "lub"
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| Results from closure of semilunar valves at the beginning of ventricular diastole | Heart sound 2 or "dub"
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| sequence of events that take place in the heart from one heartbeat to the next | cardiac cycle
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| the cardiac cycle includes: | contraction periods and relaxation periods
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| Measured as the systolic blood pressure | contraction periods
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| measured as the diastolic blood pressure | relaxation periods
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| 4 phases of cardiac cycle | ventricular filling phase, isovolumetric contraction, ventricular ejection phase, isovolumetric relaxation
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