Lecture 13 & McClelland Reading
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| semantic tasks are | those that require a subject to produce/verify semantic info about an object, a depiction of an object, or a set of objects indicated verbally by a word
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| semantic info is | info that has not previously been associated with the particular stimulus object itself & which is not available more-or-less directly from perceptual input provided by the object/object description
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| semantic task performance is thought to depend on a mediating process of categorization where there exists | a representation in memory corresponding to each of many concepts/categories & info about the concepts is either stored in the representations or is only accessible from it
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| within model performance on semantic tasks depends on | access to relevant category representations
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| categorization based approaches lie | implicitly/explicitly at the base of theorizing about semantic knowledge & its use in semantic tasks
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| the 3 constructs that are frequently invoked in categorization based theories to explain empirical data are | hierarchical structure, privilege categories, category prototypes
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| hierarchical structure.. | directs the sharing of info across related concepts at different levels of abstraction
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| privileged categories contain | info that is accessed directly & not by means of spreading activation in the processing hierarchy
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| category prototypes are | the means of computing similarity between individual instances & stored category representations
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| the 3 constructs used in categorization based theories offer | an incomplete & in some ways paradoxical basis for accounting for relevant empirical phenomena
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| for many natural domains there exists constraints on category membership | such that exemplars of one category must also be members of another & these class inclusion constraints can be described by a taxonomic hierarchy
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| Quillian pointed out that a taxonomic hierarchy can provide an efficient mechanism for storying/retrieving semantic info with the key aspect being | the observation that category membership at each level entails a # of properties that are shared by the members of the more specific included categories
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| Quillian proposed a spreading activation mechanism that | permitted the activation of a category representation to spread to taxonomically superordinate concepts & this model provided a mechanism for property inheritance & generalization of new knowledge
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| the time it takes to verify category membership at various levels can often | violate the predictions of the taxonomic hierarchy model
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| in neuropsychology Warrington accounts for | pattern of deficits in cases of progressing fluent aphasia or semantic dementia
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| semantic dementia of fluent aphasia is | the progressive deterioration of semantic knowledge while other cognitive faculties remain relatively spared
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| in semantic dementia what info is lost earlier in the progression of the disease? | info about specific categories at the bottom of the taxonomy
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| studies by Cambridge group show that semantic dementia patients exhibit | relatively preserved general knowledge in a variety of semantic tasks
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| the structure apparent in impair performance of semantic tasks reveals | the organizational structure of concepts in memory
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| warrington suggested that categories located and the top of taxonomy are | the first to be activated during access & the first to be acquired in development
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| Neil used children's responses to the judgement or propositions & their negations to construct predictability trees which | describe children's ontological distinctions
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| concepts on predictability trees occupy the same node if | they can reasonably enter into same set of propositions
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| the taxonomic structure is used to explain the | influence of general category membership on the processing of more specific category info
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| info stored with more general representations can determine | the feature weights for more specific categorizations but the hypothesis doesn't explain why a given feature is important for some categories & not others or how the relevant knowledge was acquired in the 1st place
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| illusory correlations are | a way general knowledge may influence the processing of more specific info
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| studies show that people are not good at estimating | the frequency objects & properties co-occur across a particular set of events
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| subjects persist in the belief that particular objects/properties have occurred together frequently even with | contrasting evidence & may discount/ignore co-occurrence of object-property pairs during learning
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| children in Massey & German's experiment are able to | categorize objects at general level of animate/inanimate & attributed typical properties to unfamiliar stimuli
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| 2nd major influence on categorization based theories of semantic task performance stems from studies on | basic level of categorization
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| subjects often perform best in semantic tasks requiring them to | identify objects at basic level
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| Roach et al. demonstrated that at the basic level subjects | fastest to verify membership
prefer to use the basic label in pic-naming tasks
fastest to discriminate objects at the basic level
show a larger effect of visual priming to basic level
children first learn to name objects w/ their basic-level name
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| basic-level advantages are observed because | the cognitive system exploits representations that correspond to into-rich bundles of co-occurring attributes in the environment
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| basic categories tend to have | special statistical properties
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| Murphy & Lassaline describe basic categories as | maximizing informativeness & distinctiveness
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| more general categories are not very informative because | their exemplars have little in common
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| more specific categories are informative but not particularly distinctive because | they have few distinguishing characteristics
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| objects from same basis category tend to | share many properties with each other& few with contrasting categories & are considered to be particularly useful
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| Rosch proposed that cognitive faculties develop to take advantage of the basic level structure by | forming summary representations of maximally listing & informative categories of objects
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| what constitutes the basic level reflects | shared/distinctive properties as these are known within a particular culture
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| the basic level has advantage for | typical members but not atypical
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| "basic level" concept representations constitute the | entry point into a taxonomic processing hierarchy
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| a given stimulus directly activates | only its basic category representation
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| info stored at other levels of abstraction | must be retrieved by means of spreading activation in the taxonomy
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| privileged access theories introduce | a distinction between semantic info retrieved directly by means of categorization & indirectly through reference to stored class-inclusion links
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| basic-level phenomena are observed because | info stored at more general/specific levels of abstraction is only accessible through the prior activation of base-level concept representations
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| Jolicoeur et al. stipulated that entry-level categories don't need to | reside at same level of taxonomic specificity for all exemplars & might be found at a more specific level of the hierarchy for atypical instances
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| basic-level advantages can shift with | increasing expertise in a domain which suggests that such effects are in part constrained by experience
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| experts prefer to name at the | subordinate level in their domain & novices prefer to name at basic-level
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| experts in a given domain may derive somewhat different conceptions about how | items in the domain are similar to one another depending upon the kind of expertise they have acquired
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| the processes by which we construct semantic representations are sensitive to | the details of the experience we have within the categories
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| evidence that a level of category structure intermediate between between the most specific & most general has | primacy over the most general level
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| Roach argued natural categories have a tendency to share | family resemblances
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| attributes have a tendency to | occur in clusters
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| the cognitive system exploits such discontinuities by | forming summary representations of categories that correspond to clusters of correlated attributes in the environment
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| membership in most natural categories is | graded (some objects are better examples of categories than others)
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| poor/atypical members of a category take longer to | verify than good/typical members
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| Roach & Mervis: semantic system may store summary category representations as | a prototypical set of descriptors that are generally, but not necessarily, true of the category's exemplars
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| time taken to classify a given instances is inversely proportional to | the # of attributes it shares with a prototypical category members
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| prototype theory | natural categories are represented by summary descriptions that are abstracted through exposure to instances in the environment
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| novel instances are compared to stored summary descriptions & are assigned to | the category with the closest match under some measure of similarity
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| in prototypes theory the time taken to perform assignment depends upon | feature overlap between novel instance, correct category, & competing categories
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| Mervis extended prototype theory to account for | data from lexical acquisition
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| child-basic category prototypes include | a small # of properties relative to adult category prototypes
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| category prototype representations may be used to explain | effect of typicality on reaction times in category & property-verification tasks
over-extension of familiar names to inappropriate but related objects in lexical acquisition & dementia & inappropriate restriction during early word learning
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| similarity-based models that attempt to do away with taxonomic processing structure will have difficulty explaining | how more general category membership can influence categorization processing at more specific levels
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| hierarchically organized processing models will have difficulty explaining | the strong influence of typicality on semantic judgements
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| categorization-based theories face further challenges from | the theory-theory approach
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| basic tenet of theory-theory approach is that | semantic cognition is constrained to a large extent by the naive domain knowledge ( a "theory") that people hold about casual relations that exist between entities in a domain
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| it is difficult to characterize just what | "nice theories" are
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| the key function of the theory-theory approach is to | explain/predict observed events in the environment & it serves this function with reference to stored knowledge about the casual properties of & relations between objects
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| in the TLC model a node inherits | the properties of its "parents" and "grandparents"
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| the TLC model cannot account for | reverse distance effects
typicality effects
basic level effects
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| the original TLC model is hierarchical with all links the same length while the revised TLC model is | not s strict hierarchy because concepts can be associated via a direct link & connections vary in length
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| in the revised TLC model the length of the link corresponds to | the strength of the relationship
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| properties in the original TLC are given by | walking up the links to inherit the properties
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| in the revised TLC model the properties are inherited by | spreading activation
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| being semantically primed means that | a person is faster to respond to a lexical decision task if it was preceded by a related word
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