Lecture 10 & Baddeley Reading
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| in 1880's Joseph Jacobs wanted to measure individual differences among mental capacities of pupils | tested by presenting a string of numbers & subjects attempted to repeat them back verbatim & if correct the string was increased until errors were made
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| working memory | the system(s) involved in the temporary storage on info in the performance of such cognitive skills as reasoning, learning, comprehension
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| concept of limited capacity lies at heart of empirical research on | short-term & working memory
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| model of comprehension developed by Kitsch & van Dijk assumes | comprehension capacity is limited by the assumption that working memory can hold only a limited number of propositions & varies by each individual
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| development of info processing approach to human cognition reflected in | Broadbent's book Perception & communication & Neissers Cognitive Psychology
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| Broadbent suggested it is necessary to assume 2 kinds of memory | short-term & long-term
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| in short term memory | items are held in temporary buffer from which the memory trace would fade spontaneously unless retrieved by rehearsal
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| in long-term memory | forgetting was assumed to occur as a result of mutual interference between long-term memory traces
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| Melton (1963) showed traditional short-term memory tasks were | capable of reflecting long-term learning & short term was a weaker version of long-term memory & proposed that forgetting was the result of interference
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| Waugh & Norman (1965) highlighted the need to distinguish between a hypothetical short-term memory store (primary memory) & | the experimental short-term memory paradigm assumed to reflect it. no reason to assume any given experimental paradigm is a pure measure of anything & short-term forgetting occurs because of limited capacity of STM
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| new sources of evidence for dichotomous view | two-component tasks, acoustic & semantic encoding, neuropsychological evidence
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| two-component tasks | certain experimental tasks have 1 brief & 1 durable components
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| recency effect is | good recall of last seen heard items
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| recency effect can be disrupted by | a distracting task
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| recall of earlier items is dependent on variables known to influence long-term learning | rate of presentation, word frequency, imageability
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| recency effect is sensitive to | delay
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| in two-component tasks earlier items are recalled from | long-term memory & recent items from temporary short-term store
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| immediate memory from verbal materials suggests | memory is based on sound of material not meaning
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| sequences that are similar in sound lead to | poorer immediate serial recall than dissimilar sequences
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| long term serial learning of word lists tend to | rely on meaning, disrupted by semantic similarity, unaffected by similarity of sound
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| Sachs (1967) required subjects to decide whether a sentence is an exact repetition of an earlier section of the passage | changes to surface structure that maintained meaning detected only when tested immediately & semantic changes detected after substantial delays
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| Kintsch & Buschre (1969) demonstrated that | earlier LTM component of task was sensitive to semantic coding & recency component was susceptible to similarity of sound
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| most powerful evidence for distinction between LTM & STM came from | brain-damaged patients
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| in 1960s there was evidence for division of memory into 3 subsystems | sensory which fed into short-term (primary) memory which fed into long-term memory
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| sensory memory is | series of brief sensory buffers lasting for less than a second
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| Atkinson & Shiffrin model termed the modal model | learning assumption that LTL involved turner from short-term story & the longer an item is in a short-term store the greater its probability of being learned although a series of experiments failed to find the relationship
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| Craig & Lockhart re-interpreted modal model into levels of processing which argues | the probability of an item being remembered increases as it is processed at progressively deeper & more elaborate levels
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| work of Baddeley & Hitch led to the assumption of a specific model of working memory that concluded | digit span & cognitive tasks load on a common working memory system
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| identification of subjects who are high/low in capacity can be used to understand | the role of working memory in a range of important tasks but depends on a good measure of working memory capacity
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| most frequently used measure of working memory capacity developed by | Daneman & Carpenter (1980) where working memory span is the largest # of sentences that can be processed & final words recalled & found a correlation of +/- 0.72 between WMS & prose comprehension
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| Baddeley & Hitch proposed a tripartite WM system that assumes | an attention controller (central executive) aided by the visuo-spatial sketchpad & articulatory/phonological loop that are capable of actively maintaining particular kinds of info
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| visuo-spatial sketchpad | holds/manipulates info about objects/locations
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| articulatory/phonological loop is a system capable of | storing/manipulating speech-based info
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| digit span depends on the | phonological loop
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| executive processes are required to maintain operation of | phonological loop
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| as digit load increases then executive demand increases which has an impact on | concurrent span on any task that demands WM capacity
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| patients with impaired short-term memory performance have a deficit in | the phonological loop system but doesn't prevent use of central executive or visuo-spatial sketchpad which explains why there is no general cognitive impairment
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| what component is the most complex & least understood component of the WM model? | the central executive
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| the central executive is associated with the process of | reflecting on info from environment/episodic memory to create accurate mental model of the situation & use it to select appropriate action
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| model by Norman & Shallice developed to account for | slips of action & disruption of attentional control in patients with damage to frontal lobes
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| the supervisory attentional system (SAS) operates | by chancing probabilities of actions to allow existing schema to be overridden
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| slips of action explained | on basis of triggering of inappropriate schema
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| patients with frontal lobe damage show a combination of | distractibility illustrated by utilization behavior & preservation which occurs when subject has difficulty breaking away from a given pattern of responding
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| utilisation behavior is when | patient will respond, often inappropriately, by manipulating any object that comes to hand
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| patients with frontal lobe damage have deficit in operation of supervisory attention system which leads to | difficulty in attentional control of action
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| utilization behavior occurs because | system is captured by any triggering stimulus that occurs in absence of long-term SAS control
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| automatisation is | the more the task is practiced the less demand it it likely to place on the supervisory attentional system
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| the finding that the central executive operates the same way as the supervisory attentional system provided explanation for | limited capacity for random generation
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| capacity to generate | declines with age & is correlated with intelligence
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| the prime feature of the central executive is to | coordinate info from a # of different sources
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| Logie showed that imagery could be disrupted by | material with little spatial info
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| what is the strongest evidence for multi-component visuospatial sketchpad | neuropsychological evidence
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| there are 2 subsystems underlying visual imagery | 1. dependent on occipital lobes & involved in representing physical appearance of objects
2. dependent on parietal lobes & responsible for spatial info
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| PET scanning studies indicate involvement of what in visuospatial sketchpad | occipital, parietal, pre-frontal & frontal lobes primarily in right hemisphere
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| performance of visuo-spatial sketchpad is disrupted by | requiring concurrent visual or spatial activity that is inconsistent with image being maintained
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| the performance of short-term memory is dependent on | the operation of phonological loop
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| the Baddeley/Hitch model assumes a | verbal store & articulatory rehearsal process
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| the verbal store is assumed to hold | speech-based information represented in traces that fade away over a period of 2 seconds
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| evidence on the nature of the verbal store comes from | the phonological similarity effect & irrelevant speech effect
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| phonological similarity effect is that | similar sounding items are harder to remember accurately than a dissimilar sequence
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| irrelevant speech effect is when | a subject trying to remember sequence of visually presented #'s & performance is disrupted by presence of simultaneous irrelevant spoken material
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| the characteristics of articulatory control process is indicated by | the word length effect & the effects of articulatory suppression
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| the word length effect is that | memory span for long words is substantially smaller than the span for short words & memory span is linearly related to spoken duration
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| what are the effects of articulatory suppression? | leads to irrelevant speech
obliterates the word length effect if it occurs during both input & written recall
interferes with phonological recording of visually presented materials
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| patients with defective STM performance show reduced memory span particularly with | auditory presentation
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| patients who are dysarthria typically show | normal phonological loop performance
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| dysarthric patients have | lost the power to vocalize without disruption of higher-level language processes
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| what is the best understood component of working memory but its function unclear? | the phonological loop
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| patients with a deficit in the phonological loop have problems with | certain types of long/complex syntactic structures but no major deficit with straightforward sentential material
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| phonological loop is important for | vocab acquisition
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| suppression disrupted operation of phonological loops leading to | clear impairment of learning novel vocab words with little effect on acquisition of pairs of familiar words
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| the typical capacity of working memory is | 7 +/- 2 items
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| in the Raven progressive matrix task you | try to notice patterns about the matrix to identify what goes in the last box & while figuring it out you store info in working memory
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| Ravens performance predicts (correlates with) | performance on a bunch of cognitive tasks & is often used as an IQ or intelligence test
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| the Ravens task suggests | WM is important for any kind of higher-level thought
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| within working memory we distinguish between | storage of info and executive processes
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| Ravens scores tend to be worse for | older people
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| Ravens score is better if | working memory is good
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| working memory task interferes with reasoning implying that | you need working memory to do the reasoning task
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| anterograde amnesia is | the inability to remember events occurring after brain injury
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| retrograde amnesia is | the inability to remember events occurring before injury
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| retrograde amnesia that is temporary graded is | when you can remember events that occurred during our childhood but you have an inability to remember events occurring before injury
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| double dissociations are evidence that | two tasks or processes depend on different underlying cognitive systems
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| acoustic similarity shows that confusions occur | if words sound alike but not for similar meaning or similar-looking words
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| subjects can generally remember about as many words as they can say in | 2 seconds
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| chunking is when you | group letters into meaningful chunks so that you can remember them better
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| the phonological loop is associated with | Broca's & Wernicke's areas which are involved in spoken language
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| for right handed people language is processed in | the left hemisphere
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| the 2 back task is when | a subject is required to remember if they have seen a specific letter 2 letters back
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| we use the language areas in our brain to | sub-vocally rehearse items in working memory
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| The Brooks experiment found that | type of response interferes with the type of working memory if it is the same type
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| brain areas related to visuospatial working memory are the | prefrontal cortex and occipital lobe
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| symptoms of frontal lobe syndrome which is caused by damage to the prefrontal cortex | exhibit central executive dysfunction distractibility, difficulty concentrating, problems with organizing & planning & perseveration
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