Lec 1: Study Strategies Lec 2: History & Meth Readings: Putnam, Bjork, Sternberg
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| What is a common misconception about study strategies? | better performance = more learning
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| what is long-term learning? | improvement in the recall of information in any format that lasts over a period of time
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| what is performance? | when you learn something and immediately recall the info in a practice context
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| training methods that are most effective for long-term learning term tend to | introduce difficulties that make short-term performance worse
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| Simon & Bjork experiment | subjects learn different sequences on keyboard
G1: blocked practice
G2: mixed 3 patterns
random had low retention rate over time while blocked had a high retention rate
random initially had more errors but over time reduced to similar rate as blocked
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| how many criteria is there for evaluating learning strategies? | 4
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| what are the 4 strategies for evaluating learning strategies? | does the technique work in a variety of environments? different students? different types of material? effective regardless of how the information is tested?
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| what 2 study strategies have low utility? | highlighting & rereading
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| What 2 study strategies have moderate utility? | generating questions/explanations & interleaving practice
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| what 2 study strategies have high utility? | distributed practice & testing
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| Fowler & Barker | similar retention rates of material regardless of using highlighting or not
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| Peterson | initial reading & review strategies that did/didn't involve highlighting had similar retention rates
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| why doesn't highlighting work? | causes focus on isolated facts & ignore bigger connections
students struggle to distinguish central ideas from peripheral info
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| Rothkopf | students were to fill in blanks after never reading it before, or reading it a certain number of times
never read before performed badly
after reading the text 2 or more times the number of exposures didn't improve # of correct responses
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| what is wrong with rereading? | doesn't improve comprehension/performance on inference-based questions
rereading more than twice doesn't help
gives false impression of mastery without long term storage
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| recall | forces you to recall info from memory
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| recognition | requires you to recognize the correct info out of choices
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| what is the study strategy generating explanations | coming up with explanations for why concepts are true, or how they relate to what you already know
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| Presley ET AL | generating explanations is effective because you are making more connections between content & what you already know
allows you to form deeper memories about the content itself
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| what is blocked practice? | study one topic until you have mastered it and then move on to the next topic
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| what is interleaved practice? | mix up problems and jump back and forth from one topic to another
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| Roher & Taylor | studied the effects of interleaved practice on concepts relating to geometry
blocked had better practice performance
interleaved practice had better exam performance
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| distributed practice | spread out study over time with breaks
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| what study strategy is though to be the most effective? | distributed practice
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| Bahrick | learning English translation of Spanish words through distributed practice
longer time between study sessions scored better on final test
no time between sessions had good short term performance but poor long term retention
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| testing is... | one of the single most effective ways to learn
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| Butler | study text passages then either test on 1/2 the passages or restudy the passages then take a test on all of the passages
practice testing had higher final test performance
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| students learn more when | their studying is spaced apart in time
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| successful strategies encourage students to | actively think about what they are learning & to do so in deeper, meaningful ways
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| read-recite-review method | enhances what people remember when they read a text
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| quizzing after reading | directly enhances your memory for what you just read & gives you a clear picture of the concepts on which you might need to spend more time
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| spacing effect | reading about a concept at home & hearing it in class after a delay will make it much more likely that you will be able to remember that concept in the future
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| spaced practice | study of the same content is spaced out over time instead of crammed into one session
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| cramming works but doesn't help with | long-term retention
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| retrieval practice | retrieving info from memory which makes it easier to do so in the future
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| sleep affects your learning/memory by | organizing/consolidating memories from the day which can lead to better problem-solving ability & creativity
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| sleep helps the brain remove | certain proteins that build up & eventually contribute to the onset of Alzheimers
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| successful learning requires | actively engaging & thinking about the material
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| learning | the more or less permanent change in knowledge or understanding that is the target of instruction
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| considerable learning can occur with | no change in performance
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| substantial improvements in performance across practice & training sessions can occur | without significant learning
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| storage strength | reflects the current activation or accessibility of that representation
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| retrieval strength is heavily influenced by | factors such as situational cues & recency of study or exposure
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| desirable difficulties | trigger encoding & retrieval process that support learning, comprehension, & remembering
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| learning tends to be | contextualized under constrained & predictable conditions
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| when testing after training takes place under novel conditions | the benefits of variation during learning are even larger
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| massing practice supports | short-term performance
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| spacing practice supports | long-term retention
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| interleaved practice results in | superior long-term retention & transfer of skills
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| inductive learning is | learning by example
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| having to resolve the inference among the different things under study forces learners to | notice similarities & differences among them, resulting in the encoding of higher-order representations, which then foster both retention & transfer
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| generation effect | long-term benefit of generating an answer, solution, or procedure
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| retrieval is a powerful | memory modifier
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| learning requires an active process of interpretation | mapping new things we are trying to learn onto what we already know
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| retrieval acts to modify your memory by making the info you practice retrieving | more likely to be recallable again in the future & in different contexts
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| the way we attempt to understand concepts, interpret contemporary ideas & determine what seems reasonable about these concept is shaped by | our contemporary context of ideas & by past ideas that have led to the present ones
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| dialectic | the process of evolving ideas through theses, antitheses & synthesis
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| dialectic depends on | having a critical tradition that allows current beliefs to be challenged by alternative, contrasting, & sometimes radically divergent views
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| even when we reject outdated ideas they | still move us forwards, serving as the valuable springboards for new ideas
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| the study of cognition has hosted | a wide variety of intellectual perspectives on the human mind & how it should be studied
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| goal of structuralism was to | understand the structure of the mind by analyzing the mind into its constituent components or contents
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| structuralism is generally considered to be | the first major school of thought in psych
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| German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt believed psychology & the study of cognition | should focus on immediate & direct conscious experience
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| the optimal method by which a person can be trained to analyze these sessory experiences is | introspection which is a form of self-observation
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| Edward Titcher believed | all consciousness can be reduced to three elementary states: sensation, images, affections
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| sensations are | the basic elements of perception
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| images are | the pictures we form in our minds to characterize what we perceive
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| affections are | the constituents of emotions such as love & hate
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| the thinking of most scientists & other good thinkers | rejects/builds on theirs/others work in the creation of what they hope will be their lasting contributions to scientific/other kinds of thinking
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| functionalism is an alternative to | structuralism
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| the key difference between structuralist & functionalists was the | fundamentally different questions they asked
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| functionalism viewed humans/organism as | more actively engaged in their sensations/actions
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| James Rowland suggested 3 fundamental percepts of functionalism | 1. the study of mental processes
2. the study of the uses of consciousness
3. the study of the total relationship of the organism to its environment
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| functionalists were unified by the types of questions they asked by not necessarily by | the answers they found of the methods they used for finding those answers
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| pragmatism is an outgrowth of | functionalism
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| pragmatism is the belief that | knowledge is validated by its usefulness & is concerned with knowing what people do & what we can do with our knowledge of what people do
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| William James was a leader in guiding | functionalism toward pragmatism
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| William James chief functional contribution is | a single book: Principles of Psychology
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| John Dewey is credited with | laying out the formal defining principles for the philosophical school of functionalism
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| scientist disagree regarding how how much of scientific research should be | basic research & applied research
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| associtionism is an | integrative synthesis & its main interests are the middle to higher level mental processes
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| associationism examines | how events/ideas can become associated with one another in the mind, to result in a form of learning
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| learning and remembering depend on | mental association
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| Hermann Ebbinghaus was the first experimenter | to apply associationist principles systematically & used much more rigorous experimental techniques such as himself as his own experimental subject
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| Herman Ebbinghaus used his self observations to | study & quantify the relationship between rehearsal & recollection of material
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| scientists views on introspection are mixed | fruitless b.c. many of our thought processes are unconscious or not available to our conscious minds
valuable for generating hypotheses but useless in evaluating them
invaluable source of confirmatory data
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| Edwin Guthrie elaborated on Ebbinghaus's ideas | proposed that two observed events (stimulus/response) become associated when they continually occur at about the same time
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| Edward Lee Thorndike held that the role of "satisfaction" is | the key to forming associations
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| law of effect | a stimulus will tend to produce a certain response over time if an organism is rewarded for that response
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| behaviorism focuses entirely on | the association between environmental contingencies & emitted behavior
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| behaviorism asserts that psychology should deal | with only observable behavior & that any conjectures about internal thoughts & ways of thinking are nothing more than speculation
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| John Watson is the father of | radical behaviorism
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| John Watson was influenced by functionalists | in his emphasis on what people do & what causes their actions
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| historically much behavioristic work has been conducted with | lab animals
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| with animal subjects it is easier to | endure behavioral control & to establish stimulus-response relationships
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| Clark Hull tried to connect | involuntary learning with voluntary learning
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| Clark Hull was influential for his belief that | the laws of behavior can be quantified
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| B.F. Skinner was a proponent of | radical behaviorism & believed that virtually all of human behavior can be explained by behavior emitted in response to environmental contigencies
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| environment controls behavior | the setting in which a person is raised determines who he/she should do
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| Gestalt psychology | we best understand psychological phenomena when we view them as organized, structured wholes
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| Gestalt psychology is traced to | Max Wertheimer who collabed with Kurt Koffka & Wolfgang Köhler who proposed that problem solving cannot be explained simply in terms of automatic responses to stimuli or to elementary sensations
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| cognitivism is | the belief that much of human behavior can be understood if we understand first how people think
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| cognitivism concludes that | the whole is different from the sum of its parts & attempts to determine precisely which mental mechanism & elementary elements of thought make that conclusion true
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| Ulric Neisser defined cognitive psychology as | the study of how people learn, structure, store, & use knowledge
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| Rodger Sperry tried to determine | what kinds of thinking occurs in each of the two halves of the brain
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