Cognition and Language
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| cognition | the processes wherby we acquire and use knowledge
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| language | a flexible system of communication that uses sounds, rules, gestures, or symbols to convey information
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| signs | stereotyped communications about an animal's current state
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| phonemes | the basic sound units of a language that indicates changes in meaning
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| morphemes | the smallest meaningful units of speech, such as simple words, prefixes, and suffixes
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| grammar | the language rules that determine how sounds and words can be combined and used to communicate meaning within a language
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| syntax | the rules for arranging words into grammatical phrases and sentences
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| semantics | the criteria for assigning meaning to the morphemes in a language
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| surface structure | the particular words and phrases used to make up a sentence
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| deep structure | the underlying meaning of a sentence
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| image | a nonverbal mental representation of a sensory experience
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| concept | a mental category for classifying objects, people, or experiences
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| prototypes | according to Rosch, a mental model containing the most typical features of a concept
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| algorithm | a step-by-step method of problem solving that guarantees a correct solution
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| heuristics | rules of thumb that help in simplifying and solving problems, although they do not guarantee a correct solution
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| trial and error | a problem-solving strategy based on the successive elimination of incorrect solutions until the correct one is found
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| hill climbing | a heuristic problem-solving strategy in which each step moves you progressively closer to the final goal
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| subgoals | intermediate, more manageable goals used in one heuristic strategy to make it easier to reach the final goal
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| means-end analysis | a heuristic strategy that aims to reduce the discrepancy between the current situation and the desired goal at a number of intermediate points
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| working backward | a heuristic strategy in which one works backward from the desired goal to the given conditions
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| mental set | the tendency to perceive and approach problems in certain ways
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| functional fixedness | the tendency to perceive only a limited number of uses for an object, thus interfering with the process of problem solving
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| visualizing | a problem-solving strategy in which principles or concepts are drawn, diagrammed, or charted so that they canbe better understood
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| divergent thinking | thinking that meets the criteria of originality, inventiveness, and flexibility
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| convergent thinking | thinking that is directed toward one correct solution to a problem
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| brainstorming | a problem-solving strategy in which an individual or a group produces numerous ideas and evaluates them only after all ideas have been collected
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| compensatory model | a rational decision-making model in which choices are systematically evaluated on various criteria
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| representativeness | a heuristic by which a new situation is judged on the basis of its resemblance to a stereotypical model
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| availability | a heuristic by which a judgment or decision is based on information that is most easily retrieved from memory
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| confirmation bias | the tendency to look for evidence in support of a belief and to ignore evidenfe that would disprove a belief
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| framing | the perspective or phrasing of information that is used to make a decision
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| hindsight bias | the tendency to view outcomes as inevitable and predictable after we know the outcome
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| counterfactual thinking | thinking about alternative realities and things that never happened
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| linguistic relativity hypothesis | Whorf's idea that patterns of thinking are determined by the specific language one speaks
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| figurative language | expressive or nonliteral language such as metaphor and irony
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| telegraphic speech | an early speech stage of 1- and 2-year-olds that omits words that are not essential to the meaning of a phrase
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