SOCIAL PSYCH EXAM 1
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| Hindsight Bias | After seeing facts, assuming that you could have guessed that was going to happen. Ex. "Of course they were going to win the election!" or "Of course Bruce Willis was a ghost!" Opposite results may seem obvious as well.
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| Empirical | Observation and experience, differentiates psychology from philosophy.
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| Systematic | Structured, methodical, differentiates psychology from casual observation with no structure.
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| Theories | Broad explanations and predictions concerning a phenomena of interest.
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| Hypothesis | A prediction stated in a way that allows it to be TESTED.
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| Purpose of Theories | Organize, explain, apply to real world situations, guide research. Not always testable. Can never prove, but can DISPROVE; need to operationalize what you are trying to study.
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| Types of theories | learning (classical=association, operant=reinforcement, social=imitation), cognitive (perception), motivational (cognitive consistency), equity and change (cost v. benefits), biological.
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| Correlational Method | A way to measure how much one variable influences another, 2 variables at least are necessary. No random assignment, this is used when manipulation impossible or unethical. R summarizes relationship between variables (strength and direction).
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| Third Variable Problem | A is not causing B or vice versa, C is causing both A and B.
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| Experimental Method | Specific hypothesis derived from a broad theory. DV is what you measure and IV is what you change/manipulate. In these, investigator varies some factors, keeps others constant, & measures effects on randomly assigned subjects.
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| Main Effect | When an independent variable has an effect on the dependent variable.
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| Interaction | When the effect of an independent variable depends on the level of another independent variable.
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| Internal Validity | Extent to which the independent variable manipulates what it's supposed to and the effects on the dependent variable are due to this (a good experimental design)
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| Manipulation Check | Measures to check if manipulations were successful.
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| Confounding Variable | Things that affect the dependent variable other than the independent variable. (ex. alcohol, warm temp, noise, culture, personal history all contribute to violence).
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| Demand Characteristics | Clues about the hypothesis, placebo effect. If P identifies correct hypothesis and acts in ways to confirm to "help" researcher. Minimize this with a false hypothesis (more extreme) or behavioral measures (more subtle)
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| Ethics | Anonymity, informed consent, debriefing.
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| Replication Crisis | Not all studies replicate well due to many factors, need to use stronger theories and studies, better methods, and stronger stats to ensure results and methods match
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| Social Cognition | How people interpret, analyze, remember, and use info about themselves and the social world.
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| Your Brain Socially | How people analyze, interpret, remember, and use info about self and social world, using as little mental energy as possible.
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| Schemas | Mental frameworks that influence how we take in and process info. We think of sports
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| 3 Basic Processes Schemas Influence | attention (what is noticed; looking past a friend in public), encoding (what is stored in memory; asking a ? & not remembering response), retrieval (what is recovered from memory)
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| Schema Advantages | better memory for new info, organize and interpret new info
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| Schema Disadvantages | fills in gaps with what "should" be, distorting how we see the world, applying them when they don't fit. People are unwilling to change them!
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| Self-Fulfilling Prophecy | Expectations influence behavior toward an individual, that person's behavior, and fist person's expectations are fulfilled. ex. If a professor came in on 1st day and said everyone was going to fail, student would feel inadequate, not come to class, & fail
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| How Do We Think? | 2 systems: prefrontal cortex is laborious and deep thinking while amygdala is related to emotion and is quick and simple thinking
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| Controlled Processing | Effortful and conscious thinking, tends to be avoided. Use the other type to conserve our mental energy.
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| Automatic Processing | After experience, info processing becomes effortless, involuntary, unintentional, and non-conscious (stereotypes, advertising)
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| Priming | The activation of schemas (scared after a horror movie, compaing a new friend after talking to an old one)
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| Heuristics | Shortcuts in decision making, cognitive misers to save mental effort.
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| Availability Heuristic | Making a decision based on an example, info, or recent experience that's readily available even if not best for decision. ex. plane crashes make people afraid to fly even though car crash more likely
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| Representativeness Heuristic | Judge based on the extent to which current stimuli resembles other stimuli. Ignore stats or knowledge. ex. guy with glasses and a calculator is an engineering student.
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| Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic | Judge based on a number or value as a starting point to which adjustments are made (is the Mississippi River longer or shorter than 5k miles?) Anchor is 5k and we adjust by saying longer or shorter.
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| False Consensus | Overestimate how similar others are to us (opinions, negative behaviors like binge drinking)
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| False Uniqueness | Overestimate how unique we are (abilities, positive behaviors)
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| Gambler's Fallacy | Seeing independent events as non-independent (each spin in Roulette is independent, but they still put up "hot numbers").
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| Magical Thinking | Based on irrational assumptions. ex. Thinking one's thoughts can influence the physical world.
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| Counterfactual Thinking | Tendency to imagine other outcomes that did NOT occur, thoughts may require cog effort to dismiss, can experience benefits (hopeful) and costs (regrets/ I wish I did that instead)
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| Negativity Bias | Greater sensitivity to negative info than positive (faster/more accurate at identifying threatening facial expressions) may be evolutionary to protect us from harm.
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| Considering the Opposite | Most change in bias when told to "consider the other side" rather than being told to "be unbiased".
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| Izard's Combination | Some automatic emotions (happy, sad, mad) and some more controlled and conscious (guilty, shameful, prideful)
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| Mood Congruence Effects | More likely to store positive info in a positive mood and negative info in a negative mood
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| Mood Dependent Memory | Info recalled matches current mood (will recall positive parts of day if in a good mood and negative parts if in a bad mood)
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| Affective Forecasting | Overestimating how we WILL feel, both positive and negative emotions; bad forecasts=bad decisions
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| Channels of Communication | verbal=spoken word, nonverbal=multiple channels used (eye contact indicates positive feelings, body language reveals emotional states, cultural emblems, touching suggests affection, sexual interest, dominance, caring, aggression)
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| Non-verbal - Facial Expressions | reveal current moods/feelings. Universal expressions include: sad, angry, disgust, happy, fear, & surprise. Deception is polite white lies Nonverbal leak bc arousal (higher pitch, hesitant speech, adapters, blink more, pupil dilate, high/low eye contact)
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| Non-verbal - Gestures | emblems, illustrators, adapters. (emblems: thumbs up means doing good, middle finger means what it means; often culture/situation dependent) (illustrators are talking with hands, think Italian or pointing while giving direction)
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| Organizing Information | Evaluation - global positive or negative (is immediate first impression positive or negative). Cognitive weighted average - direct information, primacy effect, negative info (general negativity bias), schemas - how do they impact impression formation?
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| Person Perception | Cont Model of Impression Form (Have to have motivation to make a deep impression (based on power difference, attraction), cat/beh mismatch(xpect a certain behavior & get opposite, will want to make a deeper impression),Thin Slicing
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| Attributions | Explanations of why people are behaving in a particular way
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| Internal Attributions | Caused by a person's traits (disposition/they're just rude)
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| External Attributions | Caused by the situation (they probably had a bad day)
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| Correspondent Inference Theory | Aspects of behavior that inform internal dispositions (freely chosen behavior, (not) socially desirable, (inconsistent) social roles, unique effects). If person happy on game show not free chosen, is desirable, consistent SR, no unique effects so external
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| Covariation (Cube) Model | Consensus - does everyone do it? Distinctiveness - does it occur only in this situation? Consistency - does it occur repeatedly? Attribution depends on each
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| Internal Attribution Cube Model | High consistency, low consensus, low distinctiveness
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| External Attribution Cube Model | High consistency, high consensus, high distinctiveness
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| Alternative Attribution Cube Model | Low consistency, special attribution unique to that time and place. IF CONSISTENCY LOW, ALMOST ALWAYS THIS TYPE!
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| Belief Perserverance | Standing by initial conclusions even in the face of additional info
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| Actor-observer difference | For deviant behaviors - judge own behaviors via situational forces/justifying it because of the situation, judge others behaviors as dispositional or just who they are
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| Self-serving bias | Credit self for successes and blame external factors for failures
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| Fundamental attribution error | overemphasize internal attributions i.e. “they cut me off because they are a jerk” and do not think that there could be other reasons such as a medical emergency
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| Gilbert’s Stages of Attributions | stage 1: dispositional - auto, stage two: role of situation considered, requires motivation and effort. EX. you will automatically assume someone with a sour face on is just a mean person, but if we are motivated we may think “they may be having a bad day
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| Salience Bias | Person who is salient/easiest to see is seen as more influential
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| Two Factor Theory of Emotion | Stage 1: Physio Arousal palms sweat, <3 racing), Stage 2: Look to situation to explain arousal (may give cues about what emotion is appropriate) EX. “heartbeat” study where men viewed pictures of nude women and told they were hearing own <3 beat (changed)
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| Self-Concept | Our schema about ourself, all self-knowledge in memory. Does who you are depend on social context? Yes, the people we are around and the environment all influence us to behave in certain ways.
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| Independent self-concept | Defines the self through personal attributes including independence, assertiveness, individuality. Often valued in Western cultures due to the individuality aspect. “The squeaky wheel gets the grease”
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| Interdependent self-concept | Defines the self through interpersonal attributes including attention to others, interpersonal harmony, doing what is expected. Often valued in Eastern cultures (Japan). “The nail that stands out gets pounded down”
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| Cognitive social comparison theory | Aspirational view of self (upward social comparisons, I want to be like them) or Positivity (downward social comparisons, to feel better about self). Ideal self=want to be, ought self=should be, actual self=reality
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| Self-complexity | How the self-concept is organized. High complexity entails having aspects of self distinct (one domain has smaller impact on overall feelings about self) whereas low complexity entails having aspects of self overlap e/o (putting all eggs in one basket)
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| Motivation | Intrinsic motivation is about the self and inward motivation whereas extrinsic motivation is outside motivations and pressures (money)
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| Self-Esteem | How we feel about self, generally cumulative eval. Terror Mngmt Theory is avoid fear of death, Meaning Mntnc is to maintain a meaning of life, and Sociometer Theory is that this is used to avoid exclusion from groups. Low= more objective view of the world
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| Self-Esteem Study | High performs better on computer game speed with no ego threat whereas low performs better when there is an ego threat.
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| Self-Control/Self-Regulation | “Muscle” Model (exerting requires effort, limited/depletable resources, ego depletion (state of depleted self-control, more difficult to exert this a second time), wise to be strategic about using this)
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| Self-Control | Radishes v. Cookies study: cookies and radishes displayed on the table with the smell of cookies in air IV: Radish or cookie, eat only cookies = indulged their desires, eat only radish = overrode their desires. DV: Persistence on prob-solving task.
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| Ego Depletion | Relationships, social exclusion, hunger (low glucose), negative mood which can become a downward spiral) and we can increase self-control with practice (better performance, less likely to use stereotypes)
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| Self Evaluation Maintenance | Self-evaluation maintenance, what happens when someone close to us outperforms us? Depends on how close we are to the person, relative performance between us, and how relevant the subject they did better on is to us.
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| Self Presentation | In person, online (we know we “clean up” our profiles, but believe others are authentic)
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| Self Other Comparisons | Upward v. downward, motivation? Following threat? Gain knowledge?
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| Self-handicapping | Giving yourself a reason for why you fail. We do this to protect our self concept, likely to do it when we sense a threat to the self. It gives us an excuse but does not really do what it is supposed to, performance is not usually good
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