psychology101 #2
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| Personality | Consistent set Of behavioral characteristics that people display over time & across situations. It distinguishes individuals from each other.
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| Personality view types | Trait View, Situationist view, & Interactionist view.
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| Trait View | One thinks and behaves consistently across situations.
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| Situationist view | Our thoughts and behaviors change with the situation.
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| Interactionist view | Both traits and situations affect thoughts and behavior.
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| SuperTraits | Openess, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism. (OCEAN)
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| Openess | fantasy, feelings, actions, ideas, values.Closed - Open
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| Conscientiousness | competence, order, dutifulness, achievement striving, deliberation, self-discipline.Undependable - Dependable
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| Extraversion | gregariousness (social), assertiveness, activity, excitement seeking, positive emotions. Withdrawn - Outgoing
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| Agreeableness | trust, straightforwardness, altruism, compliance, modesty, tendermindedness.Low - High
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| Neuroticism | anxiety, hostility, depression, self confidence, impulsiveness, vulnerability. Stable - Unstable
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| Three-Factor Theory of Personality | Extraversion, Neuroticism, Psychoticism/Nonconformity
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| Psychoticism/Nonconformity | Combines agreeableness & conscientiousness , Loss of touch with reality, Social Deviant, Lack of conventional socialization or respect of rules & feelings of others
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| Eysenck | Made pyramid of hierarchy of personality, Base: stimulus response associations, Next Level: habits, Next: Personality traits, Top Level: superfactors.
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| Temperament | Innate tendencies to behave in certain ways, Influences how people act, think, & feel, Correlation between temperament at infancy & adulthood
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| Temperment Components | Sociability, Emotionality, Impulsivity.
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| Sociability | Preference to be in the company of others or to be alone.
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| Emotionality | Inclination to be aroused in emotional situations when distress, fear & anger are involved.
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| Impulsivity | Ability to respond to stimuli immediately, without reflection or concern for consequences.
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| personality traits | the definition of personality implies that people have relatively consistent characteristics exhibited in different situations
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| -different numbers of factors -nearly all have extroversion and neuroticism -useful for conceptualizing personality -not very effective in predicting behavior
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| What is one way to measure personality? | MMPI
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| Projective tests | includes Rorschach and TAT, concerns about validity and reliability
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| biological tendencies that affect personality | -extraverts are less arousable -neuroticism may be related to the sensitivity of emotional parts of the brain -underarousal of nervous system may be related to risk taking or criminal behavior
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| Conscious mind | Normal awareness, Everyday thoughts
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| Preconscious mind | Easily brought to consciousness, Ex. Your address
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| Unconscious mind | Hidden thoughts and desires, Defenses from childhood abuse
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| Free Association | patients to say whatever came to their mind to tap the unconscious.
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| The id | unconsciously strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives operating on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification. Is present at birth. Home to sexual and aggressive drive. Governed by the pleasure principle
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| pleasure principle | Wanting immediate gratification of needs
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| The superego | provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations. This develops in childhood. Home to morality and conscience. Governed by the ego ideal.
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| Ego Ideal | Ultimate ideal of what a person should be
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| The ego | Largely conscious, ego functions as the “executive” and mediates the demands of id and superego. This develops in childhood (before superego). Acts as a referee between id and superego. Governed by the reality principle
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| Reality Principle | Assess what is realistically possible in the world
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| Freud’s psychosexual stages | Oral stage (birth to 1½ years), Anal stage (1½ to 3 years), Phallic stage (3 to 6 years): Castration anxiety & Oedipus complex, Latency period (6 to puberty), Genital stage (puberty onward).
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| Oral Stage | Pleasure comes from mouth, Developmental task is successfully weaning, Oral fixation leads to biting, eating, etc.
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| Anal Stage | Pleasure comes from anus, Expelling and Retaining feces, Developmental task: toilet training, Anal fixation: constipated personality
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| Phallic stage | Pleasures come from the clitoris and penis, Gratification from masturbation, Developmental Task: successful identification with same sex parent
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| Oedipus Complex | Boys experience this, Castration anxiety, Fear that love of mother will lead to his father cutting off his penis, To resolve child identifies with father, Internalizes father’s morality, Fixation leads to Don Juan-ness or lessened masculinity
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| Electra Complex | Girl’s experience, Angry with mother for not giving them a penis, Jealous of mother’s relationship with the father, Penis envy, Identify with mother, Fixation leads to trouble with reality
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| Latency Period | Sexual urges represses, Transformation of urges to socially acceptable behaviors.
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| Genital Stage | Pleasure comes from vagina and penis, Gratification found in sexual intimacy, Goals: Learn to form sexual love relationships, Develop interests and talents related to productive work.
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| Karen Horney | Woman who disagreed with Freud, Believed there was no penis envy but in reality there was Privilege Envy; Women wanted the privileges of men not a penis
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| Unconscious attempts to silence the id | Denial, Displacement, Regression, Intellectualization, Projection, Rationalization, Reaction formation, Repression, Sublimation, Undoing
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| Displacement | Shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or persons… redirecting anger toward a safer outlet.
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| Regression | Leads an individual faced with anxiety to retreat to a more infantile psychosexual stage.
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| Projection | Leads people to disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others.
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| Rationalization | offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one’s actions
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| Reaction formation | causes the ego to unconsciously switch unacceptable impulses into their opposites. People may express feelings of purity when they may be suffering anxiety from unconscious feelings about sex.
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| Repression | banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.
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| Critiques of Freud | Not scientific; hard to test, Too broad; hard to falsify claims, Based on limited sample; Female patients, Upper class, 19th-century Vienna
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| Humanist Theories | Humanists believe people try to improve. Desire to become self-actualized; an innate motivation to attain the highest emotional and intellectual potential.
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| Carl Rogers | Believed in Client centered Therapy; focuses on client's individual growth
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| Self Concept | Individuals sense of self and how others see them, Need unconditional positive regard, Acceptance without any conditions.
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| Abraham Maslow | Self-actualization theory. Hierarchy of needs; The healthy personality
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| Cognitive Theory | You are what you expect—Affected by people’s thoughts. Locus of control.Source of perceived control over events; Internal: Feel responsible for what happens to you (or) External: Outside forces are responsible
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| First born or only child | Conscientious, Extraverted, Neurotic
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| Middle-born | Independent
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| Later-born | Agreeable, Open to experience, Neurotic
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| Female Personality | More empathic, More neurotic, Greater social connectedness
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| Male Personality | Greater individuality, More aggressive, More assertive
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| Collectivism | Focus on the group; Chinese, African, Latin American, Arab cultures
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| Individualism | Focus on needs of the individual; United States, Canada, Great Britain, Australia
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| Memory Duration | How long memories last
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| Memory Capacity | How much information can be stored
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| Encoding | The process of organizing and transforming incoming information so that it can be entered into memory.
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| Storage | The process of retaining info in memory.
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| Retrieval | The process of digging info out of memory.
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| Novel information | Memorizing requires effort, like learning a concept from a text. Such processing leads to durable and accessible memories.
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| Hermann Ebbinghaus | Studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables. Discovered the forgetting curve
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| Forms of Sensory Memory | Iconic Memory (Visual Form), Echoic Memory (Auditory form)
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| Sensory Memory | Very short duration (less than 1 second), Large capacity, Lingering activation in perceptual areas of the brain, Happens automatically, without effort, via bottom up processing-processing initiated by a stimulus
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| Short-Term Memory(STM) | Short duration (a few seconds), Small capacity (7+2 items, but some research says 4), Useful for Remembering telephone numbers, Language use, Getting information to long-term memory
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| Strategies to extend Short-term Memory | Increasing capacity, Chunking (5-9 units), , Rehearsal, Repeat over and over
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| Chunking | By combining items into meaningful “chunks,” we use fewer slots of STM.
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| Extending STM Duration | Silent repetition keeps STM refreshed, Works until you are interrupted, Rehearse enough, and STM moves to LTM
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| Long-Term Memory | (Very) long duration, from hours to decades, (Very) large capacity, so there is always room for new memories, People are not aware of the info in their LTM
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| Types of Long-Term Memory | Explicit Memory. Implicit memory
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| Explicit Memory | Facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.
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| Implicit versus Explicit LTM | Explicit memory (declarative memories), Conscious awareness; easy to verbalize, Includes semantic and episodic. Implicit memory (nondeclarative memories), No conscious awareness; hard to verbalize, Includes skills or habits (how to ride a bike)
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| Priming | Result of having just performed a task that makes it easier to perform the same or an associated task more easily in the future. To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you first need to activate one of the strands that lead to it.
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| Semantic versus Episodic | Semantic involves Word meanings (a cat is an animal), Concepts (cats land on their feet), General facts (my cat is named Kermit). Episodic involves Events that occurred to you (adopting a cat), Include context (when, where).
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| Working memory | a new name for short-term memory, has limited capacity (7±2) and short duration (20 seconds).
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| Capacity | the ability to hold a memories (Ex. 7±2 that keeps coming up)
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| Stress Hormones & Memory | Heightened emotions (stress related or otherwise) make for stronger memories. Continued stress can disrupt memory.
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| Knockout mice | Gene “snipped away” disabling gene in mouse, Showed different genes for different memory types,
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| Humans (Human Genome Project) | Identified genes used for memory, Apo E gene related to memory and Alzheimer’s
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| Consolidation | The strengthening of memories
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| Structural Consolidated memories | Memories that is stored into a new structure and no longer requires ongoing activity to be maintained
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| Depth of Processing | The number and the complexity of the operations used when a person processes info. We can process new information in simple (shallow) or complex (deep) ways.
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| Shallow | based on sensory characteristics
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| Deep | based on meaning (more likely to remember)
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| Breadth of Processing | Info that is organized and integrated into what the person already knows, We can encode new information in simple or elaborate ways
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| Simple encoding | repeating information
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| Elaborative encoding | creating connections to existing knowledge. Leads to better memory
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| Flashbulb Memories | Emotionally charged, episodic memories. Very vivid and accurate. High level of confidence. But accuracy does decrease over time.
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| Recall | Intentional bringing to the mind of explicit memory, Essay Test
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| Recognition | Matching encoded input to stored representation, Multiple Choice Test
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| Cues | Stimuli that help us remember
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| State Dependent Retrieval | people also remember better if recall is attempted in the same psychological state as when the info was first encoded.
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| False Memories | Memories of events or situations that did not in fact occur. Don’t remember actual events but what experience they had. More difficult to implant some memories than others
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| Hippocampus | Neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories.
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| Decay | Memories fade away over time
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| Retroactive | new information makes it harder to remember old information.Sleep avoids retroactive interference thus leading to better recall.
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| Proactive | old information makes it harder to learn new information
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| Encoding failure | Not process enough to begin consolidation
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| Motivated Forgetting | People unknowingly revise their memories.
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| Repression | Defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.
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| Amnesia | Loss of memory over an entire time span, Usually leaves semantic memories intact, Effects more episodic memories, Typically resulting from brain damage (Accident, Infection, Stroke)
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| Retrograde amnesia | Disrupts previous memories, Impairment of memories before onset, Infantile/childhood amnesia, Used as a soap opera plot device.
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| Anterograde amnesia | Prevents learning new facts, Impairment of memories after onset
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| Repressed Memories | Real memories thought to be pushed out of consciousness because they are emotionally threatening.
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| Mnemonic devices | Strategies that improve memory, Interactive images
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| Method of loci | Memorize a set of locations, Visualize a to be remembered item in each location
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| Pegword system | Memorize using a list of rhymes (one is a bun), Visualize the pegword (bun) with the to be remembered item
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| Psychological Disorder | The presence of a constellation of symptoms that create significant distress or impair work, school, family, relationships, or daily living.
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| Three factors of Psychological Disorders | Distress, Disability, Danger
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| Distress | Must cause the person—NOT the therapist or those around them— stress! If the person does not deem it an issue, than you cannot force them to deal with it. Ex.Excessive crying, panic attacks. Sometimes we cannot see the distress (I.e. worry)
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| Disability | Ranked second among diseases that cause death, 48% (maybe more that do not report) have experienced 1 of 30 common psychological disorders. At least 20% of Americans have a diagnosable mental disorder each year.
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| Danger | Suicide/homicide, Put the client’s or someone else’s life at risk purposefully or accidentally, People may exhibit deviant behavior (in the eyes of the mainstream culture) but that is NOT dangerous.
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| Psychosis | Line between normal and abnormal. May have Hallucination and/or Delusions. May be excepted by culture that is not deemed abnormal (Spirituality)
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| Hallucination | Mental images so vivid they seem real.
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| Delusions | Entrenched false beliefs.
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| Intern’s Disease | Upon hearing the symptoms of a disorder, the tendency for people to believe that they or someone they know shares those symptoms. Only a trained professional can diagnose a psychological disorder.
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| Greeks explanation of abnormality | Imbalances of the body’s 4 fluids or humors, Yellow bile, Phlegm, Blood and Black bile.
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| Yellow bile | delusion and hallucinations(According to the Greeks)
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| Phlegm | sluggish (According to the Greeks)
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| Blood | Choleric-aggressive (According to the Greeks)
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| Black bile | melancholy (According to the Greeks)
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| Abnormal behavior | Was the work of the devil (According to the Greeks)
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| Biopsychological Model | Today people define abnormality as
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| Diathesis-stress | For a given disorder there is both a predisposition to the disorder…diathesis, AND specific factors… Stress. They, with environmental triggers, combine to trigger the disorder. Stress is particular to each individual.
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| Diathesis involves | Genes, Brain abnormalities, Neurotransmitters.
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| Stress involves | Physical stress, Trauma/Abuse, Neglect, Relationships, Culture related stress.
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| Types of Conditioning | Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning(Rewarded or punished for certain behaviors), Observational Learning (Grow up watching mom worry or dad angry)
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| The American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) | a widely used system to classify psychological disorders. Based on psychodynamic theory.
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| Classification of psychological disorders | Axis I: clinical disorders, Axis II: personality disorders and mental retardation, Axis III: general medical conditions, Axis IV: psychosocial and environmental problems, Axis V: global assessment of functioning.
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| Mood Disorders | Conditions marked by persistent or episodic disturbances in emotion that interfere with normal functioning in at least one realm of life.
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| Major depressive disorder(MDD) | At least 2 weeks of depressed mood or loss of interests in nearly all activities, along with sleep or eating disturbances, loss of energy, and feelings of hopelessness
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| Characteristics of MDD | Depressed mood, less interest/pleasure in activities, weight loss/gain, Insomnia/hypersomnia, agitation/retardation, Fatigue/energy loss, Feels worthlessness/excessive guilt, concentrate/indecisiveness, Thoughts of death/suicide with/out suicide plan
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| Effects person’s ABC’s involving MDD | Affect (mood), Behavior (tacticians), Cognitions (thoughts)
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| MDD Across Cultures | Not all cultures share the same symptom list. Zimbabwe (as well as some Latin and Mediterranean cultures) depression is marked by headaches. Asian culture report weakness and sense of imbalance.
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| Misconceptions of suicide | If people don’t talk about it they wont do it, People who attempt suicide are crazy, Someone who tries suicide can not be stopped, People who commit suicide do not want help, Talking about suicide puts the idea in their head.
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| Dysthymic Disorder | Depressed mood for most of the day, for more days than not, as indicated either by subjective account or observation by others, for at least 2 years, Milder than MDD.
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| Those suffering from Dysthymic Disorder suffer 2/more of following | Poor eating, Insomnia/hypersomnia, Low energy/fatigue, Low self esteem, Poor concentration, Feelings of hopelessness.
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| Bipolar disorder | Mood disorder marked by one or more manic episode, often altering with periods of depression
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| Types of Mania | Manic episode, Prodromal phase
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| Manic episode | Period of 1 week during which an abnormally elevated, expansive or irritable mood persists
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| Prodromal phase | Early stage before symptoms are acute
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| Bipolar | Often cycles with depression, Usually take place over a number of years, Some rapid cycle with four or more mood shifts a year, If left untreated the mood swings cycle quicken over time
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| How mood disorders affect the brain | Hereditary factors (higher in twins), Frontal lobe (Lower activity in those with depression), Amygdala(Increased activity and smaller hippocampus w/depression & Larger in people with bipolar)
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| The person with Mood Disorder | Those with depression Make more negative comments, less eye contact, less responsive, Speak softer, Use shorter sentences, Way of explaining life events, Blame external or internal factors.
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| Beck | person who was founder of depression lab
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| What did Beck Discover | Depressed make errors in thinking, Negative views of: The world, One’s self, The future.
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| Social support network with Depressed | Depression goes up when there is less social reinforcement and less contact with others, Lack of positive reinforcement ups risk for depression
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| Anxiety Disorder | extreme fear or extreme agitation(anxiety), People with anxiety disorders experience intense or pervasive anxiety or fear, Experience extreme attempts to avoid these feelings, Anxiety is not consistently related to a specific object or situation
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| Panic | Fear of impending doom, Sense of unreality, Symptoms reach their peak in a few minutes, Attack can last from minutes to hours, Sometime not associated with nothing specific
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| Panic attacks | Episodes on intense fear or discomfort accompanied by symptoms such as: Palpitations, Breathing difficulties, Chest pain, Nausea, Sweating, Dizziness, Fear of going crazy or doing something uncomfortable.
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| Phobias | Exaggerated fear of an object, class of objects, or particular situations accompanied by avoidance that is extreme enough to interfere with everyday life. Avoiding the stimulus the sufferer avoids the fear and the anxiety.
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| Social phobia AKA Social anxiety disorder | Fear of public embarrassment or humiliation and the avoidance of social situations likely to arouse fear
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| Agoraphobia | Fear of or avoiding of places that may be difficult to leave should panic symptoms occur, Fear of leaving the home.
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| Obsession | Recurrent or persistent thoughts, impulses, images, that feel intrusive and inappropriate and are difficult to suppress or ignore
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| Compulsion | Repetitive behaviors or mental acts that some individuals feel driven to perform in response to an obsessions (Checking, Washing, Ordering)
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| Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) | Anxiety Disorder that occurs as a consequence of a traumatic event such as war, physical or sexual abuse, rape, terrorism, or natural disasters
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| PTSD Diagnosis made with 3 conditions | The person experiences or witnesses an event that involves actual or threatened serious injury or death. The person responses with fear or helplessness. Experiences symptoms.
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| PTSD symptoms | Re-experience event, Avoidance and emotional numbing, Heightened arousal (hyperarousal)
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| Schizophrenia | A psychotic disorder that profoundly alters affect, behavior, and cognition
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| Schizophrenia Symptoms Positive | Involve an excess or distortion of normal functions. They are called positive not because they are desirable but because they are PRESENT
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| Positive symptoms | Delusions of persecution(danger-FBI),grandeur(important),reference(songs are made for them), or control(thoughts not your own).Auditory hallucinations.Disordered behavior(Inappropriate, childlike, silliness or unpredictable agitation), Disorganized speech
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| Schizophrenia Symptoms Negative | Involve a diminution or loss of normal functions
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| Negative symptoms | A general failure to express or respond to emotion(Flat affect), Brief, slow, empty replies to question(Alogia), An inability to initiate or persist in goal directed behavior (Avolition)
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| Schizophrenia symptoms | Symptoms occur gradually, Prodromal phase is characterized by slow deterioration in functioning, Eventually symptoms reach active phase and full blown + and/or – symptoms arise
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| Four subtypes (symptom clusters) | Paranoid, Disorganized, Catatonic, Undifferentiated
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| Paranoid | Delusions of persecution are prominent, intellectual functioning and affect are intact, auditory hallucinations are common
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| Disorganized | Disorganized speech, word salad, disorganized behavior, flat affect, inappropriate affect
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| Catatonic | Bizarre, immobile, relentless motor behaviors prominent
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| Undifferentiated | Symptoms do not fall in any of the above categories
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| Eating Disorders | Serve disturbances in eating behavior, Preoccupations with food and/or weight.
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| Anorexia Nervosa | Potentially fatal disorder characterized by the refusal to maintain even a low normal eight
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| Symptoms of Anorexia Nervosa | Distortions of body weight/size, Intense fear of becoming fat, Refusal to maintain a healthy weight, Among females, amenorrhea-cessation of menstruation, Obsessions with food—irrational and illogical
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| Bulimia Nervosa | Recurrent episodes of binge eating followed by a way to prevent weight gain
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| Implicit memory | Previous experiences aid in the performance of a task without conscious awareness of these previous experiences.
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