biology-keystones
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on it to display the answer.
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| unlike prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells have the capacity to... | assemble into multi-cellular organisms
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| why is water a polar molecule? | because the oxygen side is slightly negative and the hydrogen side is slightly positive
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| cohesion | -water tends to stick together
ex. droplets of dew on grass
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| surface tension | -the top layer of water is very strong
ex. insects can walk on water
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| adhesion | -water tends to stick to OTHER things
ex. water sticks to glass after washing
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| capillary action | -movement of water against gravity
ex. allows water to rise up narrow tubes in plant stems
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| high specific heat | -water is able to resist changes in temperature
ex. helps organisms retain body heat and resist freezing in cold temps.
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| universal solvent | -water can dissolve many things
ex. putting sugar in tea
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| density | -the degree of compactness of a substance
ex. ice is less dense than liquid water
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| covalently bonding | chemical bond between atoms that results from the sharing of a pair of electrons
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| dehydration synthesis | -monomers are joined together
-form water molecules
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| hydrolysis | -polymers are broken down into monomers
-use water molecules
-splitting of a covalent bond by the addition of water
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| what are carbohydrates composed of? | carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
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| what are lipids composed of? | carbon, hydrogen, and a little oxygen
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| what are proteins composed of? | carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sometimes sulfur
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| what are nucleic acids composed of? | carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorous, nitrogen, sulfer
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| carbohydrates include... | polysaccharides
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| polysaccharides contain... | disaccharides
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| disaccharides are composed of two... | monosaccharides
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| lipids include... | triglycerides
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| triglycerides are composed of... | fatty acids and glycerol
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| proteins are composed of... | peptides
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| peptides are composed of... | amino acids
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| nucleic acids include... | RNA and DNA
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| RNA and DNA are composed of... | nucleotides
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| high-energy compounds include... | ATP
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| ATP is composed of... | nucleotides and phosphate groups
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| where is ATP's energy located? | the phosphate group
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| why carbon? | -second most abundant element in living organisms
-establishes covalent bonds
-can share four electrons, therefore it can bond to four additional atoms
-have strength, flexibility and can chemically react to other atoms
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| how does carbon's ability to form bonds make it uniquely suited to form macromolecules? | it forms covalent bonds with other carbon atoms
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| what is the ratio of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms in a carbohydrate? | 1:2:1
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| monosaccharide | one sugar unit
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| oligosaccharide | a short chain of two or more covalently bonded sugar units
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| polysaccharide | a straight or branched chain of sugar units in which there may be hundreds or thousands of the same or different kinds of sugar bonded to one another
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| what is the structure of a nucleic acid? | -five carbon sugar
-nitrogen-containing base
-phosphate group
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| why do cells develop metabolic pathways? | to maintain, increase, and decrease the concentration of substances
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| metabolic pathways | orderly sequence of reactions with specific enzymes that act at each step along the way
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| enzymes | -catalytic molecules
-speed up specific reactions without being used up in the reaction
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| what 3 special features do all enzymes have in common? | 1. do not create processes that would not take place on their own
2. are not permanently altered or used up in reactions
3. catalyzes only one specific type of reaction but can catalyze many of this particular reaction one after another`
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| substrates | molecules that a specific enzyme can chemically recognize and to which it can bind
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| products | substrates that undergo chemical changes to form new substances
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| lock-and-key mechanism (enzymes) | -once the enzyme-substrate is together, the enzyme holds the substrate in a position where the reaction can occur
-once the reaction is complete, the enzyme unlocks the product and the enzyme is free to facilitate another reaction
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| enzyme rate of reaction | -the rate of reaction depends in part on the concentration of the enzyme
-if the enzyme is diluted, its concentration is lowered, which slows the reaction rate
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| activation energy | -the energy substrates must collide with in order to reach the transition state
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| enzyme activity of food spoilage bacteria | -the enzyme activity is greatly reduced at typical food refrigeration temps
-the rate of reproduction is decreased at low temps
-typical refrigeration temps are not low enough to kill bacteria
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| when are enzymes denatured? | high temperatures
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| alcoholic fermentation | -makes alcohol and CO2 as byproducts
-creates no ATP
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| lactic acid fermentation | -makes lactic acid as the byproduct
-creates no ATP
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| phosphorylation | when the appropriate enzyme is present, the terminal phosphate group of an ATP molecule can be transferred to a variety of other compounds
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| what is the equation for photosynthesis? | 6CO2+6H20+sun energy=C6H12O6+602
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| what are the main reactions of photosynthesis? | light reactions, calvin cycle
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| light reaction | -takes place in chloroplasts
-light is absorbed by chlorophyll, which uses the energy to split water
-oxygen is released to the outside of the cell
-"H" part of H2O is carried to the dark reactions with NADPH
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| calvin cycle | -takes place in the stroma
-CO2 from the hair combines with hydrogen from the light reaction to form simple sugars
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| stroma | -gel-like matrix
-contains the ribosomes, DNA, and material foe carbohydrate synthesis
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| grana | -stacks of flattened sacs
-contains thylakoids
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| thylakoids | where light-reactions take place
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| what is the equation for cellular respiration? | C6H12O6+6O2=6CO2+6H20+energy
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| glycolysis | -takes place in the cytoplasm
-anaerobic process
-glucose enters a cell by active transport
-glucose is broken down by enzymes into pyruvic acid
-produces 2 ATP
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| Krebs cycle | -takes place in the mitochondria
-breaks down products of glycolysis
-releases 2 ATP and CO2
main function is to move high energy electrons to molecules for the electron transport chain
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| electron transport chain | -takes place in and across the inner membrane of the mitochondria
-high energy electrons travel through the proteins and make 34 ATP
-releases CO2 and H20
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| what is released after each step? | glucose-->pyruvic acid-->NADH + FADH2-->CO2, H20, 38 ATP
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| in glycolysis, ATP molecules are produced. what is the net gain of ATP molecules (per molecule of glucose) from glycolysis? | 2
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| ions | atom or group of atoms carrying a positive or negative charge
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| carrier protein | protein molecule that combines with a substance and transports it through the plasma membrane
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| osmosis | movement of water from an area of higher concentration of water to an area of lower concentration of water across a differentially permeable membrane
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| diffusion | movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration
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| hypertonic | solution that has a higher concentration of solute and a lower concentration of water
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| hypotonic | solution that has a lower concentration of solute and a higher concentration of water
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| facilitated diffusion | occurs when a carrier molecule embedded in the cell membrane transports a substance across the membrane by means of diffusion
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| sodium-potassium pump | -transport protein in the plasma membrane that moves sodium ions out of and potassium ions into animal cells
-important in nerve and muscle cells
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| endocytosis | a process in which a cell surrounds and takes in material from its environment
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| exocytosis | a process by which a cell surrounds and removes materials from inside the cell
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| bio, logy, cyto, osis meanings | -bio=life
-logy=study of
-cyto=cell
-osis=process or action
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| which molecule provides the greatest amount of energy per gram of mass when metabolized? | lipids
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| what environment change can cause an increase in the rates of chemical reactions in cells? | increased temperature
-enzymes in organisms must be at the appropriate temp to function
-enzymes will work more rapidly as temps increase, until they reach temps at which they become denatured`
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| what will happen if enzyme concentrations are decreased? | -there would be fewer available enzyme molecules to combine with substrate molecules
-rate of reaction would decrease
-each substrate molecule would have to wait for an enzyme to be freed up after catalyzing a reaction
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| what will happen if the activation energy was increased? | the reaction would be slower because more energy would be required for the reaction to take place
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| what will happen if the diffusion rates were decreased? | decreasing the rate of diffusion of water into and out of the cell would have little effect on the rate of reaction catalyzed by enzyes
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| what is the purpose of mitosis? | -cell growth
-repair and replacement of damaged cell parts
-asexual reproduction
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| interphase (mitosis) | 1. cell matures and carries on normal activities
2. DNA copied and appears as chromatin
3. nucleolus visible
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| prophase (mitosis) | 1. chromosomes condense and become visible
2. centrioles separate and spindle starts forming
3. spindle forms with aster at each pole
4. nuclear membrane and nucleolus disintegrate
5. centromere of chromosomes attaches to spindle fibers
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| metaphase (mitosis) | 1. chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell attached to kinetochore fibers of spindle
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| anaphase (mitosis) | 1. centromeres split apart
2. homologs move to opposite poles of cell
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| telophase (mitosis) | 1. nuclear membrane forms at each end of cell around the chromosomes
2. nucleolus reforms
3. chromosomes become less tightly coiled and appear as chromatin again
4. cytokinesis begins
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| cytokinesis (mitosis) | 1. cytoplasm of the cell and its organelles separate into 2 new daughter cells
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| what is the purpose of meiosis? | -only occurs in the testes and ovaries
-"reduction division": reduces the number of chromosomes to half the normal number so that when fusion of sperm and egg occurs, the baby will have the correct number
-PRODUCE GAMETES
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| what is a cell that undergoes Meiosis 1 called? | a primary spermatocyte or oocyte
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| prophase 1 (meiosis) | 1. chromosomes coil tightly and are visible
2. nuclear membrane and nucleolus disintegrate
3. spindle forms
4. synapsis (joining) of homologous chromosomes occurs making tetrads
5. chromosomes in tetrad exchange fragments (crossing over)
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| metaphase 1 (meiosis) | 1. tetrads become aligned in the center of the cell attached to spindle fibers
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| anaphase 1 (meiosis) | 1. homologous chromosomes separate
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| telophase 1 (meiosis) | 1. nuclear membrane forms at each end of the cell around the chromosome
2. chromosomes become less tightly coiled and appear as chromatin again
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| cytokinesis (meiosis) | 1. splits cytoplasm producing 2 cells
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| prophase 2 (meiosis) | 1. DNA is not copied before the cell divides
2. chromosomes condense and become visible
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| metaphase 2 (meiosis) | 1. chromosomes become aligned in the center of the cell attached to spindle fibers
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| anaphase 2 (meiosis) | 1. sister chromatids separate randomly (independent assortment)
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| telophase 2 (meiosis) | 1. nuclear membrane forms at each end of the cell around the chromosomes
2. nucleolus reform
3. chromosomes become less tightly coiled and appear as chromatin again
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| cytokinesis (meiosis) | 1. cytoplasm divides producing 4 cells in males called spermatids
2. spermatids mature and form flagellum to become sperm
3. cytokinesis in females produces an ootid
4. ootids mature to become ovum or egg
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| meiosis/mitosis type of reproduction | meiosis: sexual
mitosis: asexual
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| meiosis/mitosis occurs in | meiosis: humans, animals, plants, fungi
mitosis: all organisms
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| meiosis/mitosis genetically | meiosis: different
mitosis: identical
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| meiosis/mitosis crossing over | meiosis: yes, mixing of chromosomes can occur
mitosis: no, crossing over cannot occur
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| meiosis/mitosis pairing of homologues | meiosis: yes
mitosis: no
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| meiosis/mitosis meiosis/mitosis number of divisions | meiosis: 2
mitosis: 1
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| meiosis/mitosis number of daughter cells | meiosis: 4
mitosis: 2
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| meiosis/mitosis chromosome number | meiosis: reduced by half
mitosis: remains the same
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| meiosis/mitosis creates | meiosis: makes sex cells, eggs and sperm
mitosis: makes everything other than sex cells
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| in order for new cells to pass on the genetic code... | DNA must be copied inside of cells
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| where does replication take place in eukaryotic cells? | nucleus
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| where does replication take place in prokaryotic cells? | cytoplasm
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| replication | 1. the double helix is opened up by breaking the weak hydrogen bonds
2. an enzyme (DNA polymerase) comes in and adds new bases to the open strand
3. at the end, two identical strands of DNA are formed
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| messenger RNA | carries the transcripted message fro DN to he ribosome to make proteins
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| ribosomal RNA | a component of the ribosome and the site of protein synthesis
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| transfer DNA | brings the amino acids to the ribosome for protein synthesis
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| what is DNA composed of? | -five-carbon sugar
-nitrogenous base
-phosphate group
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| DNA how many rings are purines? | 2
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| how many rings are pyrimidines? | 1
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| how many hydrogen bonds are A and T held together with? | 2
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| how many hydrogen bonds are C and G held together with? | 3
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| what process helps to preserve the genetic information stored in DNA replication? | nucleotides lining up along template strand according to base pairing rules
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| principle of dominance | when 2 forms of the same gene are present the dominant allele is expressed
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| principle of segregation | in meiosis two alleles separate so that each gamete receives only one form of the gene
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| principle of independent assortment | each trait is inherited of other traits
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| diploid | an organism with two copies of each chromosome
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| locus | a specific location on a chromosome
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| why are sex chromosome disorders the most commonly observed type of aneuploidy in humans? | because the X chromosome inactivation allows individuals with more than two X chromosomes to compensate for the extra "doses" and survive the condition
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| monosomy | occurs when one chromosome lacks its homolog
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| trisomy | occurs when one extra copy of a chromosome is present
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| polyploidy | occurs when an entire extra set of chromosomes is present
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| why are sex-linked traits more commonly found on males? | because the only have one X, so they cannot mask a negative recessive trait with a second X
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| incomplete dominance | traits in which the heterozygote shows a different phenotype from the homozygous dominant phenotype
ex. grey fur
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| codominant | alleles that are fully expressed in the heterozygous condition
ex. black and white fur
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| polygenic | traits in which several genes contribute to the overall phenotype
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| multiple alleles | traits that are a result of more than 2 types of alleles
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| sex-linked traits | phenotype of an allele located on a sex chromosome
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| crossing over | -occurs when two chromosomes physically overlap and exchange chromosome material
-changes the DNA sequence within each chromosome
-results in an endless number of different possible gene combinations
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| nondisjunction | the failure of chromosome pairs to separate properly during meiosis stage 1 or 2, specifically during anaphase
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| deletion | part of a chromosome or sequence of DNA is missing
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| insertion | the addition of one or more nucleotide base pairs into a DNA sequence
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| translocation | transfer of part of a chromosome to a different position especially on a nonhomologous chromosome
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| duplication | there are two or more copies of a gene or of a segment of a chromosome
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| inversion | causes a reversal in the order of a segment of a chromosome within the chromosome of gene
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| role of RNA | -in the process of transcription, RNA transfers the genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm
-at the ribosomes, the process of translation uses the genetic code on the RNA to form protein from amino acids
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| how is RNA different from DNA? | -single stranded
-ribose sugar
-uracil
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| transference | when tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosomes, so they can be assembled into proteins
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| production of proteins role of ribosomes | where protein synthesis occurs
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| production of proteins role of ER | -in eukaryotes, ribosomes are attached here
-as the proteins build, they are packaged herw
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| production of proteins role of Golgi body | -modifies and packages proteins from ER into vesicles
-can store them for later use
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| production of proteins role of nucleus | contains DNA
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| nonsense mutation | results in a STOP codon being inserted someplace before the end of the gene
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| silent mutation | -point mutations that do not change the amino acid sequence of the protein
-these are most likely to have no effect
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| frameshift mutation | -additions or deletions of one or more nucleotides
-may result in "garbage genes", as the entire amino acid sequence in the code after the change is devastated
-large deletions may remove a single amino acid, or an entire chunk of chromosome
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| in order for natural selection to occur in a population, several conditions must be met: 1 | 1. individuals in the population must produce more offspring than can survive
2. those individuals must have different characteristics
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| in order for natural selection to occur in a population, several conditions must be met: 2 | 3. offspring must inherit some characteristics from their parents
4. organisms with the best-suited characteristics for their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce
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| genetic drift | the new population does not have the same frequencies or amounts of traits that were previously in the larger population
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| gene flow | organisms of the same species are able to move back and forth between areas to increase the variation of the population through sexual reproduction
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| homologous structures | structures that have the same shape but are used differently
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| analogous structures | structures that have the same function but look different
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| Hardy-Weinberg Theorem | states that the allele frequencies of a gene in a population will remain constant, as long as evolutionary forces are not acting
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| for a population to be in H-W equilibrium, what conditions must be met? | 1. the population is very large; there is no genetic drift\
2. matings are random
3. there is no mutation
4. there is no migration
5. there is no selection
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| bottleneck effect | -the small surviving population is unlikely to rep. the genetic makeup of the original pop.
-in the small remaining pop., some alleles may be overrepresented as some underrepresent and some alleles may be totally absent
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| founder effect | -the smaller the founding pop., the less likely its gene pool will be representative of the original pop.'s genetic makeup
-if the new colony survives, random drift will continue to affect allele frequencies until the pop. reaches a large enough size
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| gene flow | -natural pops. may gain or lose alleles by gene flow, since they do not have gene pools which are closed systems required for H-W equilibrium
-gene flow tends to reduce between-population differences
-extensive gene flow can group neighboring pops->1pop
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| why would a new mutation increase in frequency? | because individuals carrying this allele are producing a larger percentage of offspring in the population due to genetic drift or natural selection, not because mutation is producing the allele in abundance
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| why is mutation important to evolution? | it is the original source of genetic variation, which is the raw material for natural selection
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| why can organisms that reproduce rapidly fix new traits quickly? | because there are many generations in a short time period, and mutations that help the organism are passed on to many more organisms in a short time
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| theory | the summary of a hypothesis or group of hypotheses that have been supported by repeated testing
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| hypothesis | possible explanation for observations or possible answer to a scientific question; educated guess
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| law | generalizes a group of observations for which no exceptions have been found
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| observation | an act or instance of viewing or noting a fact or occurrence for some scientific or other special purpose
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| fact | a truth known by actual experience or observation, something known to be true
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| principle | a fundamental, primary, or general law or truth from which others are derived
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| inference | arrival of conclusions from given information by any acceptable form of reasoning
-commonly drawn by deduction//formed by analyzing valid arguments or from accepted premises
-induction: a conclusion based on repeated observation of fact
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| eutrophication | -demonstrates how changing nutrient levels affect the organisms in an ecosystem
-an increase of nutrients (usually n and p) is added
-increases photosynthesis
-as the producers die, decomposers come and eat them
-lower the oxygen available->many die
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| population density | the number of organisms living in an environment
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| exponential growth | -J shaped
-if a pop is provided with ideal conditions, it will increase
-healthy organisms reproduce at a rate greater than their death rate
-as long as this continues, the pop grows larger
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| logistic growth | -S shaped
-as the pop increases, the resources that are available become limited, and the growth of the pop slows and begins to stabilize
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| density-dependent limiting factors | -competition
-predation
-parasitism
-crowding/stress
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| density-independent limiting factors | -weather fire
-droughts/floods
-human activities
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| interspecific competition | occurs when different species of organisms prey on the same essential resource that is in limited supply
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