Terms from Ch 5-8
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| Learning | A relatively permanent change in behavior that is brought about by experience
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| Habitation | The decrease in response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentation of the same stimulus
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| Classical conditioning | A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about a response
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| Neutral stimulus | A stimulus that before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest
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| Unconditional Stimulus (UCS) | A stimulus that brings about a particular response without having been learned
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| Unconditional Response(UCR) | A response that is natural and needs no training (e.g. salivation at the smell of food)
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| Conditional Stimulus (CS) | a once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with a unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused by the unconditioned stimulus
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| Conditioned Response (CR) | A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation at the ringing of a bell)
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| Phobias | intense irrational fears
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| Post traumatic stress disorder(PTSD) |
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| Extinction | A basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in freuency and eventually disapperars
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| Spontaneous Recovery | The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning
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| Stimulus Generalization | A process in which, after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response
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| Stimulus discrimination | Occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from each other that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not
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| Operant Conditioning | Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences
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| Law of effect | Responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated
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| Reinforcement | the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated
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| Reinforcer | Any stimulus that increases the probability that a behavior will occur again
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| Primary Reinforcer | Satisfies some biological need and works naturally
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| Secondary Reinforcer(Conditioned reinforcer) | a stimulus that becomes reinforcing because of its association with a primary reinforcer
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| Positive reinforcer | A stimulus that is added to the environment that brings about an increase in preceding response
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| Negative reinforcer | An unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future
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| Punishment | A stimulus that decreases the probability that a prior behavior will occur again
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| Positive Punishment | weakens a response through the application of an unpleasant stimulus
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| Negative Punishment | Consists of the removal of something pleasant
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| Schedules of Reinforcement | Different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior
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| Continuous Reinforcement Schedule | A schedule in which behavior is reinforced every time the behavior occurs
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| Partial(intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule | A schedule in which behavior is reinforced some but not all the time
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| Fixed-ratio Schedule | A schedule in which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made
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| Variable-ratio Schedule | A schedule in which reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than a fixed number
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| Fixed-interval Schedule | A schedule in which reinforcement is provided for a response only after a fixed time period has elapsed
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| Variable-interval Schedule | A schedule by which the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed
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| Discriminative stimulus | signals the likelihood that reinforcement will follow a response
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| Shaping | The process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
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| Biological Constraints | Built-in limitations in the ability of animals to learn particular behaviors
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| Behavior Modifications | A formalized technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones
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| Interval Schedules | the amount of time that has elapsed since a person or animal was rewarded
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| Cognitive Learning Theory | An approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning
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| Latent Learning | Learning in which a new behavior is learned but not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it (occurs without reinforcement)
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| Observational Learning | Learning by observing the behavior of another person, or model (social cognitive approach)
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| Learning Styles | Characteristic ways of approaching material, based on their cultural background and unique pattern of abilities
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| Relational Learning Style | Learning style where one masters material best through exposure to a complete unit or phenomenon. Parts of the unit are comprehended only when their relationship to the whole is understood
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| Analytical Learning Style | Learning style where one master material best when they first analyze the principles or components underlying an object, phenomenon, or situation by developing and understanding of the fundamental principles and components, and see the whole picture
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| Modeling | The imitation of behaviors performed by others
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| Cognitive Map | Involves creating a mental representation of a spatial location
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| Behavior modifications steps | 1)Identify goals and target behaviors
2)Design a data-recording system and recording preliminary data
3)Selecting a behavior-change strategy
4)Implementing the program
5)Keeping records after implementation
6)Evaluating and altering ongoing program
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| Skinner Box | A chamber with a food dispenser and a response lever. Pressing the lever results in food being dispensed
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| Encoding | The initial process of remembering
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| Storage | the maintenance of material saved in memory
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| Retrieval | Material in memory storage has to be located and brought to awareness to be useful
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| Memory | The process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information
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| Sensory Memory | The initial, momentary storage of information that lasts only an instant.
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| Short-Term Memory | Memory that holds information for 15-25 seconds(can retain 5-9 pieces of information) aka Working memory
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| Long-Term Memory | Memory that stores information on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve
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| Iconic Memory | memory that reflects information from the visual system
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| Echoic Memory | Memory that stores auditory information coming from the ears
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| Chunk | a grouping of information that can be stored in short-term memory
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| Rehearsal | the repetition of information that has entered the short-term memory
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| Elaborative rehearsal | occurs when the information is considered and organized in some fashion
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| Working Memory | Memory system that holds information temporarily while actively manipulating and rehearsing that information.(aka short-term memory)
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| Serial Position Effect | the ability to recall information in a list depends on where in the list an item appears
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| Primary Effect | Items presented early in a list are remembered better
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| Recency Effect | Items presented late in a list are remembered best
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| Declarative memory | memory for factual information: names, faces, dates, and facts(things)
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| Procedural Memory | Memory for skills and habits(how to do things)
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| Semantic Memory | Memory for general knowledge and facts about the world, as well as memory for the rules of logic that are used to deduce other facts
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| Episodic Memory | Memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context
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| Semantic Networks | Mental representations of clusters of interconnected information
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| Engram | Term for physical memory trace in the brain that corresponds to a memory
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| Hippocampus | Part of the brains limbic system that plays a central role in the consolidation of memories(located in the within the brain's medial temporal lobe)
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| Amygdala | Another part of the limbic system that is involved with memories of emotion
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| Long-term Potential | shows that certain neural pathways become easily excited while a new response is being learned
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| Consolidation | process in which memories become fixed and stable in long-term memory
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| Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon | The inability to recall information that one realizes one knows-a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from long-term memory
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| Recall | Memory task in which specific information must be retrieved
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| Recognition | Memory task that in which individuals are presented with a stimulus and asked whether they have been exposed to it previously or are asked to identify it from the list of alternatives
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| Levels-of-processing theory | The theory of memory that emphasizes the degree to which it is analyzed and considered
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| Explicit Memory | Intentional or conscious recollection of information
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| Implicit Memory | Memories of which people are not consciously aware but that can affect subsequent performance and behavior
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| Priming | A phenomenon that occurs when exposure to a word or concept(called a prime) later makes it easier to recall related information
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| Flashbulb Memories | Memories related to a specific, important, or surprising event that are recalled easily and with vivid imagery
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| Constructive processes | Processes in which information are influenced by the meaning we give to events
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| Schemas | Organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled
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| Autobiographical memory | Our recollections of our own life experiences
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| Decay | the loss of information in memory though nonuse
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| Interference | the phenomenon by which information in memory disrupts the recall of other information stored in memory
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| Cue-dependent forgetting | Forgetting that occurs when there are insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle information that is in memory
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| Proactive interference | Information learned earlier disrupts the recall of new material
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| Retroactive interference | Interference in which material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier
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| Alzheimer's disease | A progressive brain disorder that leads to gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities
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| Amnesia | Memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties
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| Retograde amnesia | amnesia in which memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event, but not for new events
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| Anterograde amnesia | Amnesia in which memory is lost for events that follow and injury
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| Korsakoff's syndrome | a disease that afflicts long term alcoholics , leaving some abiliteis intact but including hallucinations and tendency to repeat the same story over and over
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| Decay theory | States that the passage of time always increases forgetting
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| Keyword Technique | involves linking things that you know with things that you want to learn
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| Cognitive Psychology | the branch of psychology that focuses on the study of higher mental processes, including thinking, language, memory, problem solving, knowing, reasoning, judging, and decision making
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| Thinking | brain activity in which we mentally manipulate information, including words, visual images, sounds, or other data
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| Mental Images | representations in the mind of an object or event
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| Concepts | mental groupings of similar objects, events, or people
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| Prototypes | Typical, highly representative examples of a concept that correspond to our mental image or best example of the concept
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| Algorithm | a rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem
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| Heuristic | a thinking strategy that may lead us to a solution to a problem or decision, but-unlike algorithms-may sometimes lead to errors.
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| 3 Steps of Problem solving | Preparation, Production, Judgement
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| Well-defined problem | both the nature of the problem itself and the information needed to solve it are available and clear
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| Arrangement problems | require the problem solver to rearrange or recombine elements in a way that will satisfy a certain criterion
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| Transformation problems | consist of an initial state, a goal state, and a method for changing the initial state into the goal state
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| Means-end analysis | Involves repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists
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| Subgoals | Dividing a problem into intermediate steps in order to generate solutions
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| Insight | a sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements hat had previously appeared to be unrelated
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| Functional fixedness | The tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical uses
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| Mental Set | The tendency to approach a problem in a certain way because that method worked previously
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| Confirmation bias | bias in which problem solvers prefer their first hypothesis and ignore contradictory information that supports alternative hypotheses or solutions
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| Creativity | The ability to generate original ideas or solve problems in novel ways
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| Divergent thinking | Thinking that generates unusual, yet appropriate, responses to problems or questions
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| Convergent thinking | Thinking in which a problem is viewed as having a single answer and which produces responses that are based on primarily on knowledge and logic.
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| Steps of Critical thinking | 1.Redefine problems
2.Use subgoals
3.Adopt a critical perspective
4.Consider the opposite
5.Use analogies
6.Think divergently
7.Think convergently
8.Use Heuristics
9.Experiment with various solutions
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| Availability Heuristic | Involves judging the likelihood of an event occurring on the basis of how easy it is to think of examples
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| Representativeness Heuristic | A rule we apply when we judge people by the degree to which they represent(i.e., stand for) a certain category of people
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| Language | The communication of information through symbols arranged accordingly to systematic rules
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| Grammar | The system or rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed
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| Phonology | the study of phonemes and of the way we use those sounds to form words and produce meaning
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| Phonemes | the smallest unit of speech(800 different)
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| Syntax | the rules that indicate how words and phrases can be combined to form sentences
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| Semantics | the meaning of words and sentences
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| Babble | Meaningless speech-like sounds made by children from around 3 months to 1 year
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| Critical period | Language development early in life in which a child is particularly sensitive to language cues and most easily acquires language
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| Telegraphic speech | Sentences in which only essential words are used
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| Overgeneralization | The phenomenon in which children employ rules even when doing so results in an error
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| Learning-Theory Approaches | suggests that language acquisition folows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning discovered by psychologists who study learning
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| Nativist Approach | The theory that humans are biologically pre-wired to learn language at certain times and in particular ways
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| Interactionists Approach | The view that language development is produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances that help teach language
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| Linguistic-relativity hypothesis | The hypothesis that language shapes and may determine the way people perceive and understand the world
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| Intelligence | The capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges.
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| g or g factor | the single, general factor from mental ability assumed to underlie intelligence in some early theories of intelligence
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| Fluid Intelligence | The ability to reason abstractly. It reflects our ability to reason effectively, identify patterns and recognize relationships between concepts
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| Crystallized Intelligence | The accumulation of information, knowledge, and skills that people have learned through experience and education
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| Theory of Multiple Intelligences | Gardner argues that we have a minimum eight different forms of intelligence, each relatively independent of the other: musical, bodily kinesthetic, logical-mathimatical, linguistic, spatial, interpersonal, inrtapersonal, and naturalist
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| Existential intelligence | Involves identifying and thinking about the fundamental questions of human existence
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| Practical Intelligence | Intelligence related to overall success in living
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| Emotional Intelligence | The set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions
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| Intelligence Tests | Test devised to quantify a person's level of intelligence
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| Mental Age | The age for which a given level of performance is average or typical
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| Intelligence Quotient(IQ) | A measure of intelligence that takes into account an individual's mental and chronological ages
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| Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale | Test that consists of a series of items that vary according to the age of the person being tested
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| Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV(WAIS-IV) & Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children(WISC-IV) | Both tests measure verbal comprehension , perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed
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| Reliability | The property by which tests measure consistently what they are trying to measure
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| Validity | The property by which tests actually measures what is suppose to measure
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| Norms | Standards for test performance that permit the comparison of one person's score on a test to the scores of others who have taken the same test
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| Standardized Tests | Test for which norms have been developed
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| Adaptive Testing | Every test-taker does not receive identical sets of test questions
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| Intellectual disability(mental retardation) | a disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functions and in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills
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| Mild Retardation | Intellectual disabilities with minor deficits(IQ scores from 55-69, constitute 90% of all people with intellectual disabilities)
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| Fetal Alcohol syndrom | The most common cause of intellectual disability in newborns produced by a mother's use of alcohol while pregnant
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| Down syndrome | Results when a person is born with 47 chromosomes instead of 46
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| Familiar Retardation | Intellectual disability in which no apparent biological defect exists by there is a history of retardation in the family
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| Mainstreaming | A process that increased educational opportunities for individuals with intellectual disabilities, facilitating their integration into regular classrooms as much as possible
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| Intellectually Gifted | Accounting for 2-4% of the population with IQ scores greater than 130
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| Cultural-fair IQ Test | A test trial that does not discriminate against the members of any minority group
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| Heritability | A measure of the degree to which a characteristic is related to genetic, inherited factors
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| Motivation | The factors that direct and energize behavior of humans and other organisms
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| Instincts | Inborn patterns of behaviors that are biologically determined rather than learned
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| Drive-reduction approaches to motivation | Theories suggest that a lack of some basic biological needs (such as a lack of water) produces a drive to push an organism to satisfy that need(in this case, seeking water)
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| Drive | Motivational tension, or arousal, that energizes behavior to fulfill a need
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| Primary Drives | Basic drives, such as hunger, thirst, sleep, and sex, are related to biological needs of the body or of a species as a whole
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| Secondary Drives | Prior experience and learning bring about needs
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| Homeostasis | The body's tendency to maintain a steady internal state(underlies primary drives)
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| Arousal approaches to motivation | The belief that each person tries to maintain a certain level of stimulation and activity
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| Incentive | an anticipated external reward
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| Incentive approaches to motivation | Theory that suggests that motivation stems from the desire to attain external rewards, known as incentives
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| Cognitive Approaches to motivation | Theory that suggest that motivation is a result of people's thoughts, beliefs, expectations, and goals.
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| Intrinsic motivation | motivation that causes us to participate in an activity for our own enjoyment rather than for any actual or concrete reward that it will bring us
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| Extrinsic motivation | Motivation that causes us to do something for money, a grade, or some other actual, concrete reward
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| Self-actualization | A state of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potentials in their own unique way
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| Obesity | Body weight that is more that 20% above the average weight for a person of a particular height
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| Body Mass Index(BMI) | Based on a ratio of weight to height
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| Hypothalamus | monitors glucose levels. increasing evidence suggests that the hypothalamus carries the primary responsibility for monitoring food intake
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| Weight Set Point | The particular level of weight that the body strives to maintain
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| Metabolism | The rate at which food is converted into energy and expended by the body
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| Anorexia Nervosa | A severe eating disorder in which people may refuse to eat while denying that their behavior and appearance-which can become skeleton-like are unusual
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| Bulimia | A disorder in which a person binges on large quantities of food, followed by efforts to purge food though vomiting or other means
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| Androgens | Male sex hormones secreted at puberty by the testes
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| Genitals | Male and Female sex organs
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| Estrogens | Female sex hormones
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| Ovulation | The point at which an egg is released from the ovaries, making the chances of fertilization by sperm cell highest
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| Masterbation | sexual self stimulation
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| Heterosexuality | Sexual attraction and behavior directed to the opposite sex, consists of far more that male-female intercourse
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| Double Standards | View that premarital sex is permissible for males, but not for females
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| Extramarital sex | Sexual activity between a married person and someone who is not his or her spouse
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| Homosexuality | Being attracted to members of the same sex
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| Bisexuality | Being attracted to members of both sexes
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| Transsexuality | People whose sexual identification is with the opposite gender from that they were born with.
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| Need for Achievement | A stable, learned characteristic in which a person obtains satisfaction by striving for an achieving challenged goals
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| Need for Affiliation | An Interest in establishing and maintaining relationships with other people
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| Need for Power | A tendency to seek impact, control, or influence over others and to be seen as powerful individuals, is an additional type of motivation
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| Emotions | Feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that influence behavior
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| James-Lange Theory of emotion | the theory that we experience emotions as a result of physiological changes that produce specific emotional experience
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| Visceral experience | Suggested that for every major emotion there is an accompanying physiological or "gut" reaction of internal organs
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| Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion | The belief that both physiological arousal and emotional experiences are produced simultaneously by the same nerve stimuli
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| Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion | The belief that emotions are determined jointly by a nonspecific kind of physiological arousal and its interpretation, based on environmental cues
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| Six basic emotions | Happiness, anger, sadness, surprise, disgust, and fear
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| Facial-affect program | Activation of a set of nerve impulses that make the face display the appropriate expression
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| Facial-feedback hypothesis | The hypothesis that facial expressions not only reflect emotional experience but also help determine how people experience and label emotions
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