Science and Professional Practice in Psychology
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| Scientific Theory is - | - Based on evidence.
- Reasonable explanations to describe reality
- Explain and Predict
- No theory is infallible, able to be modified
- Describe measures in hypothesis
- Must be testable
- constructed to explain & predict phenomenon
- Specific
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| Hypothesis is - | A prediction derived from theory
Makes a specific prediction
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| Heuristics - 1 | - In Psychology, they are simple & efficient rules that
have become hard‐coded by evolution
- Useful when a quick decision is required or limited
information is available, but usually lead to
systematic errors & cognitive biases
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| Heuristics - 2 | - Refers to experience based techniques for discovery,
problem solving and learning
- Heuristics are strategies that use readily accessible
information
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| Types of heuristics - Theres 8 | 1. Conjunction fallacy
2. Confirmation bias
3. Illusory correlation
4. Self‐fulfilling prophecy
5. Fundamental attribution error
6. Self‐serving bias
7. Availability/vividness effect
8. Representativeness
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| Confirmation Bias - | The tendency to seek out information that confirms your beliefs.
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| Conjunction fallacy - | The conjunction of two events can not be more likely than either one of the events alone.
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| Representativeness heuristic | The tendency to presume, sometimes despite contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling (representing) a typical member. (Stereotypes, abstract)
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| Availability Heuristic | A cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory. If instances of something come readily to mind, we presume it to be commonplace
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| Study Designs- Experimentation Designs (5) | Lab Vs. Field Experiment,
Between Groups design,
Within groups design,
Matched pairs,
Quasi-experimental design
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| Study Designs- Correlational | Looking at relationships between two variables
Positive or Negative relationships
Does not establish causation
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| Study Designs-Self-report measures | - Can be unreliable, people can lie
-Easy to administer
-Quick and cost little to perform
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| Study Designs-Validity | - The extent to which measure correspond to world
- Are you actually measuring what you think you're measuring?
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| Study Designs-Reliability | - Consistency
- Will you get same results when done again?
- Test re-test
- Reliability can be tested statistically (correlations)
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| Study Designs-Random Assignment | - Randomly places people in experimental group
- Everyone in population sample has equal chance of being represented
- As sample size increases, difference between group decreases
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| Study Designs- Independent variable | -Independent variable - the variable that's being manipulated
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| Study Designs- Dependent variable | Dependent variable - the variable that's being measured (The effect)
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| Study Designs- Control (Confounding) variable | Control - variables you have controlled for
-Confounding variables - a variable that can impact the independent variable other than the dependant variable
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| Study Designs- Placebo effect | - When a change is seen due to someone believing they are getting treatment/medication
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| Informed Consent - General informed consent Guidelines | The APA & APS guidelines state that, to be able to
provide informed consent, the individual must be
competent to understand the research and the
requirements of research
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| Informed Consent - Children | - Consent must be obtained from parent and child
- Maturity judgements considered
- Children should only be used when there is no other option and participation will be of substantial benefit
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| Informed Consent - Cognitively impaired Phased consent | - Providing opportunity to review materials and
involvement, important working with
vulnerable people and populations
- Phased consent may be appropriate,
providing potential to renegotiate consent as
required throughout an emergent research process
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| Ethics - Basic principles of Nuremberg code | 1. Autonomy
2. Non‐Maleficence and Beneficence
3. Justice
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| Ethics - Justice | The benefits and burdens of research should be
distributed as fairly as possible
Everyone has an equal chance to participate/be represented
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| Ethics - Autonomy | Respect for the rights and dignity of other people
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| Ethics - Respect | Respect peoples right to withdraw.
Respect capacity to understand consent
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| Ethics - Scientific Integrity | Do not falsify data, findings presented honestly
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| Falsifiability | Scientific theories must be stated in a way where they can be proved wrong (falsified)
Example: All swans are white
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| Heuristic - a thinking strategy that enables... | Quick, efficient judgements
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| Belief perseverance | Persistence of one's initial conceptions, such as when the basis for one's belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives.
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| Reliability with Validity - Low reliability, Low validity - High reliability, Low validity - | Low reliability, Low validity - Intelligence measured
by broken bathroom scale, Useless
Low validity, High reliability - Intelligence measured
by bathroom scale, Useless
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| Reliability with Validity - High validity, low reliability - High reliability, High validity - | High validity, Low reliability - Impossible
High reliability, High validity - A useable operational
definition!
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| Falsifiability - | If P, then Q.
Not Q.
Therefore, not P
If I am the axe murderer, then I used an axe.
I cannot use an axe.
Therefore, I am not the axe murderer
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| The scientific method - Cycle | Theory - Prediction - Test
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| Heuristics - Illusory Correlation | Seeing a relationship when one does not exist
‘Computer scientists nerdy, Holden drivers bogan’
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| Heuristics - Self‐fulfilling Prophecy | A prediction that causes itself to become true due to positive
feedback between belief and behaviour
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| Heuristics - Fundamental Attribution Error | The tendency to over‐value dispositional or personality
based explanations for observed behaviours
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| Heuristics - Self-serving bias | Tendency to attribute events incorrectly, often taking
personal credit for positive outcomes and blaming negative
outcomes on external events
I did well on assignment as I am really smart
I did poorly on assignment as the tutor is an idiot
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| Ethics - Non‐Maleficence and Beneficence | Minimise the risk and maximise the benefits of the research
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| Nuremberg Principles - Trust | Research should never undermine the trust the
participants and the wider community place in us
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| Nuremberg Principles - Fidelity and Scientific Integrity | Poorly conducted research is unethical
Findings should be reported honestly and
disseminated widely
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| Autonomy - Core values | Informed consent
Right to withdraw
Vulnerable populations
Power imbalances
Coercion
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| Trust - Core values | Confidentiality
Deception
Debriefing
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| Beneficence - core values | Reciprocity
Respect
Equality
Responsibility
Survival and protection
Spirit and integrity
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| Informed consent 1 | -All research conducted in Psychology requires
informed consent to be provided by participants
- This applies to vulnerable populations also (more so)
- Informed consent =process, not just a document
the participant signs to take part in your study
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| Issues when working with children - | - Capacity to understand what research entails,
and therefore whether their consent to participate is
sufficient for their participation
-possible coercion to participate
- Conflicting values and interests of parents and children
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| Between groups design | Each participant gets exposure to one group.
Each participant participants only once in the experiment
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| Lab vs Field experiment | Field - Community psychology, social, observations
Lab - Clinical psych/ looking at conditions
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| Within-groups design | Participant completes all levels of experiment, eg. manipulation of variable and control group, at different times.
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| Matched pairs design | Match data in pair form
Match a person in each group based on similar data.
E.g. Red wine causes worse hangover to white... compare two similar participants (one from each group)
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| Quasi-experimental design | Pretend - usually in clinical studies
-Lacks random assignment
Assigned to groups based on symptoms
-Usually in groups when group inclusion is needed
Eg. Depression group & Non-depressed group.
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