Human Structure and Function C8
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| Autonomic | The involuntary division of the peripheral nervous system which innervates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle or glands
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| Axon | A nerve fiber extending from the cell body of a neuron
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| Central Nervous System | A subdivision of the nervous system which consists of the brain and spinal cord
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| Dendrites | Cellular projects which extend from the cell body of a neuron
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| Enteric | Referring to the digestive tract
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| Ion channels | A membrane protein channel through which an ion moves
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| Motor | A division of the peripheral nervous system that transmits action potentials from the central nervous system to effector organs e.g. muscles or glands
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| Myelination | The process by which a myelin sheath wraps around an axon
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| Neuroglial cells | Supporting cells of the nervous system
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| Neuron | The basic structural unit of the nervous system
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| Neurotransmitters | A chemical that transmits information from the neuron to its effector cell
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| Peripheral Nervous system | All nervous tissue outside the central nervous system which includes the sensory receptors, nerves, ganglia and plexuses.
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| Polarised | The existence of opposite charges across the cell membrane
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| Receptors | Cell membrane proteins to which a ligand binds
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| Resting membrane potential | The electrical charge difference across the cell membrane in an unstimulated or resting cell
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| Saltatory conduction | The conduction of an action potential from one node of Ranvier to another
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| Sensory |
A division of the peripheral nervous system that transmits action potentials from sensory receptors to the central nervous system
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| Somatic | The voluntary division of the peripheral nervous system which innervates skeletal muscle
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| Synapse | A junction between the presynaptic and postsynaptic cells
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| Vesicles | Cytoplasmic organelles that contain neurotransmitters
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| Voltage gated channel | Gated ion channels that open or close when there is a change in membrane potential
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| What is spinal cord injury? | Nerve damage within the spinal canal which disconnects the brain from the spinal cord below the level of injury
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| What are the consequences of spinal cord injury? | Quadriplegia or tetraplegia – partial or complete paralysis and loss of feeling in all four limbs, abdominal and chest muscles
Paraplegia – partial or complete paralysis of the lower portion of the body, legs and in some cases the abdomen and chest
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| What are some of the causes of spinal cord injury in Australia? | Trauma from transport-related injuries, falls, sporting activities, diseases (including transverse myelitis, polio, spina bifida, Friedreich’s ataxia, malignant spinal cord compression, etc)
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| Which demographic (sex and age) do spinal cord injuries most commonly occur in and how are they caused? | Males between the ages of 15 - 24 years of age, caused by road trauma or sporting accidents
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| Function Receive sensory input | Description
Sensory receptors monitor internal and external stimuli
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| Function Integrating information | Description
The CNS processes sensory input and initiates a response. It may be immediate, stored in memory or ignored
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| Function Controlling muscles and glands | Description
Skeletal muscles control body movement, smooth muscle can increase or decrease contraction (e.g. to cause vasodilation and constriction), glands – control secretions
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| Function Maintaining homeostasis | Description
Cells in the body need to work together to maintain body systems within optimal limits. The nervous system can stimulate or inhibit activities to maintain homeostasis
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| Function Establishing and maintaining mental activity | Description
CNS is the centre for mental activities and cognition, keeping us awake or conscious, thinking, emotion, memory, learning etc
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| What does nervous tissue consists of? | Neurons and supporting cells (neuroglia)
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| What are the components that make up a neuron? | dendrites, cell body and axons
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| What does the Central nervous system consists of? | the brain and spinal cord only
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| What does the peripheral nervous system consists of? | all the nervous tissue outside the CNS (nerves, receptors, ganglia,
plexuses)
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| Which of the statements below is true about sensory neurons? | transmit information towards the CNS
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| Which of the statements below is true about motor neurons? | transmit information away from the CNS
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| What is the localised difference in charge across a neuron cell membrane? | resting membrane potential
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| The electrical signals produced by cells are called „action potentials‟. What is their function? | Transfer of information from one part of the body to another
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| What does the term „depolarisation‟ mean? | Change in the localised charge difference across the membrane. The RMP
becomes more positive (closer to zero). Inside of the cell becomes more positive.
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| What is a reflex? | An automatic respnse to a stimulus, it occurs without conscious thought
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| What structures does the motor division of (4) innervate? | Skeletal muscle
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| Which division of (1) is responsible for detecting the general and special sensations? | Somatic nervous system
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| Which part of the body is the enteric nervous system concerned with? | Digestive tract
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| Briefly explain the role of sympathetic nervous system? | Fight, flight and fright responses i.e. increasing heart rate, respirator rate, direct blood towards
muscles and away from non-vital organs
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| Briefly explain the role of parasympathetic nervous system? | Rest and digest processes, reduce heart rate and respiratory rate, stimulate digestion
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| How does the specialised structure of a neuron reflect its function? | As neurons are responsible for transmitting and integrating information, they have many processes (e.g. dendrites, axon) to increase their potential to connect with as many other neurons as possible
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| Describe the structure and function of the following neuron parts: Cell body | Neurons have 1 large cell body that contains the cell nucleus. The cell body also contains many organelles e.g. RER and mitochondria.
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| Describe the structure and function of the following neuron parts: Dendrites | Dendrites are often short and highly branched – they extend out of the cytoplasm of the cell body. Dendrites receive input from the environment and from the axons of other neurons. Dendrites conduct impulses (information) towards the cell body.
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| Describe the structure and function of the following neuron parts: Axons | Neurons (usually) have 1 axon leading away from the cell body. Axons conduct impulses (information) away from the cell body all the way to the presynaptic terminals (e.g. motor neurons go to muscles – neuromuscular junctions). Axons are often myelinated a
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| Sensory / afferent neurons | Conduct impulses (information) towards the CNS
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| Motor / efferent neurons | Conduct impulses (information) away from the CNS towards muscle or glands
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| The 3 structural classifications of neurons are: | Multipolar - several dendrites and one axon
Bipolar - one dendrite and one axon
Unipolar - one axon split into 2
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| Which of the neurons are considered: Sensory / afferent neurons? Motor / efferent neurons? | Sensory / afferent neurons
Unipolar
Motor / efferent neurons
Multipolar
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| Where do the axons of these neurons terminate? Sensory / afferent neurons Motor / efferent neurons | Sensory / afferent neurons
Inside brain (cranial nerves) and spinal cord
Motor / efferent neurons
Muscle or gland (the effector)
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| Where are the cell bodies of the following neurons found? Sensory / afferent neurons Motor / efferent neurons | Sensory / afferent neurons
Taking information towards the CNS.
Cell bodies are outside the CNS in dorsal root ganglion
Motor / efferent neurons
Taking information away from the CNS.
Cell bodies are inside brain (cranial nerves) and spinal cord
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| The majority of neurons (99%) are | Interneurons, which integrate information between motor and sensory neurons and lie entirely in the central nervous system.
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| A reflex in general is | a fast, automatic response to a stimulus
They are used in posture control / balance, protective responses and in controlling complex but automatic actions like swallowing
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| Describe the difference between a somatic reflex and an autonomic reflex. | Somatic reflexes involve skeletal muscles while autonomic reflexes involve smooth muscles, cardiac muscle or body organs
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| Membrane potential The immediate inside of the plasma membrane is | Negatively Charged
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| Membrane potential The immediate outside of the membrane is | Positively charged
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| Membrane potential The plasma membrane therefore is: | Polarised because there are opposite charges or poles across the membrane.
This difference in charge is called the resting membrane potential (RMP).
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| Indicate on the diagram above the relative numbers of Na+ and K+ leak channels | There are more potassium leak channels compared to sodium leak channels.
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| Which direction do these molecules want to travel (i.e. which direction is their concentration gradient? Na+ ? K+ ? | K+
From the inside of the cell to the outside
From inside the cell to outside
Na+
From outside the cell to inside
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| Saltatory Conduction occurs in | All myelinated axons
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| Large myelinated axons can conduct impulses at speeds of up to... | Large myelinated axons can conduct impulses at speeds of up to 130 metres per second
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| How are nerve impulses conducted in unmyelinated axons? | The reversal of the resting membrane potential has to be generated on each segment of the membrane (depolarisation).
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| What does this mean in terms of conduction velocity of myelinated versus unmyelinated axons? | When myelin is present the RMP is only changed at the Nodes or Ranvier (where there is no myelin) so large segments of the membrane can be skipped, increasing the speed of transmission
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| Order these... -Vesicles (containing neurotransmitters) move to the presynaptic membrane -Calcium channels open and calcium ions diffuse into the cell and act on vesicles -Action potential arrives at pre-synaptic terminal | 1
Action potential arrives at pre-synaptic terminal
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Calcium channels open and calcium ions diffuse into the cell and act on vesicles
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Vesicles (containing neurotransmitters) move to the presynaptic membrane
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| Order these... -Neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft via exocytosis -Neurotransmitters bind to receptors of ion channels on the postsynaptic membrane -Neurotransmitters cross the synaptic cleft | 4
Neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft via exocytosis
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Neurotransmitters cross the synaptic cleft
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Neurotransmitters bind to receptors of ion channels on the postsynaptic membrane
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| Order these... -Neurotransmitters removed from synapse by enzyme activity -Ion channels open allowing diffusion of ions in to the postsynaptic cell | 7
Ion channels open allowing diffusion of ions in to the postsynaptic cell
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Neurotransmitters removed from synapse by enzyme activity
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| Microglial cell | Migrate to areas damaged by infection, trauma or stroke and perform phagocytosis
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| Satellite Cell | Provide support and nutrition to neuron cell bodies and protect neurons from heavy metal poisons by absorbing them
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| Oligodendrocyte | Produce myelin which wraps around the axons of several neurons within the CNS
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| Astrocyte | Provide a supportive framework for blood vessels and neurons and regulate the extracellular composition of brain fluid
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| Ependymal Cell | Line the cavities within the brain and contribute to the production of cerebrospinal fluid
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| Schwann Cell | Produce myelin which wraps around the axons of one neuron within the PNS
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