Key Concepts for Chapters 8-14 to study for Final
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| Group | two or more people who, for longer than a few moments, interact with and influence one another and perceive one another as "us" pp 268, 325-330
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| Social Facilitation | (1)original meaning: the tendency of people to perform simple or well-learned tasks better when others are present; (2) Current meaning: the strengthening of domanant (prevalent, likely) responses in the presence of others pp 268-273, 274, 276
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| Evaluation Apprehension | concern for how others are evaluating us pp 272, 275
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| Social Loafing | the tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal than when they are individually accountable pp 273-278, 296
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| Deindividuation | Loss of self-awareness and evaluation apprehension; occurs in group situations that foster responsiveness to group norms, good or bad pp 278-282
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| Group Polarization | group-produced enhancement of members' preexisting tendencies; a strengthening of the members' average tendency, not a split within the group; pp 282-290 - real life examples pp 285-288
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| Groupthink | the mode of thinking that persons engage in when concurrence-seeking becomes so dominant in a cohesive in-group that it tends to override realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action pp 290-295; 494
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| Leadership | the process by which certain group members motivate and guide the group p 291, 294, 301-304
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| Task Leadership | leadership that organizes work sets standards and focuses on goals; pp 301
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| Social Leadership | leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support, p301
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| Transformational Leadership | leadership that, enabled by a leader's vision and inspiration, exerts significant influence pp 302-304
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| Prejudice | a preconceived negative judgment of a group and its individual members p 130-131, 138, 307-351
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| Stereotype | a belief about the personal attributes of a group of people. Stereotypes are sometimes overgeneralized, inaccurate, and resistant to new information pp 126, 148, 309, 315-316
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| Discrimination | unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members pp 309, 317-3118
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| Racism | (1)an individual's prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given races, or (2) institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given race, 310
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| Sexism | (1)An individual's prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given sec, or (2) institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given sex p 310
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| Social Dominance Orientation | A motivation to have one's group dominate other social groups, pp 171-173, 319-320, 321
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| Realistic Group Conflict Theory | The theory that prejudice arises from competition between groups for scarce resources, pp 325, 491-493
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| Social Identity | the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships pp 325-330, 333, 383
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| Ingroup | "Us" - a group of people who share a sense of belonging, a feeling of common identity pp 326-330
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| Outgroup | "them" - a group that people perceive as distinctively different from or apart from their ingroup, pp 326-330
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| Ingroup Bias | the tendency to favor one's own group; pp 326-
328, 453-454, 476, 494, 507
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| Outgroup Bias | see ingroup bias
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| Outgroup Homogeneity Effect | perception of outgroup members as more similar to one another than are ingroup members. Thus "they are alive; we are divers," pp 333-334
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| Just World Phenomenon | the tendency of people to believe that the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get. pp 340-342
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| Stereotype Threat | a concern, when facing a negative stereotype, that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. Unlike self-fulfilling prophecies that hammer one's reputation into one's self-concept, stereotype threat situations have immediate effects. p 345-347
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| Stigma | see pp 336-337
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| Stigma by Association | see pp 336-337
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| Attributional Ambiguity |
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| Personal Group Discrimination Discrepancy |
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| Behavioral Compensation |
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| Aggression | physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone. in laboratory experiments, this might mean delivering electric shocks or saying something likely to hurt another's feelings; pp 353-390
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| Hostile Aggression | aggression driven by anger and performed as an end in itself. pp 335, 387-388
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| Instrumental Aggression | aggression that is a means to some other end; pp 355
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| Frustration-Aggression Theory | the theory that frustration triggers a readiness to aggress pp 359-362
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| Displacement | the redirection of aggression to a target other thant he source of frustration. Generally, the new target is safer or more socially acceptable target, pp 360
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| Relative Deprivation | the perception that one is less well-off than others with whom one compares oneself, pp 361-362
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| Social Learning Theory | the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded and punished; pp 362-365, 387-388
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| Catharsis (catharsis hypothesis) | emotional release. the catharsis view of aggresssion is that aggressive drive is reduced when one "releases" aggressive energy, either by acting aggressively or by fantasizing aggression; pp 374-375, 385-387
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| Social Scripts | culturally provided mental instructions for how to act in various situation, pp 378
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| Relational Aggression |
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| Need to Belong | A motivation to bond with others in relationships that provide ongoing, positive interactions pp 393-396
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| Proximity and Liking | Proximity is geographical nearness; proximity (more precisely "functional distance") powerfully predicts liking. pp 397-402, 420, 499-504
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| Mere Exposure Effect | the tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after the rater has been repeatedly exposed to them; pp 399-402
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| Matching Phenomenon | the tendency for men and women to choose as partners those who are a "good match" in attractiveness and other traits; pp 404-405
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| Physical-Attractiveness Stereotype | the presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well; what is beautiful is good; pp 405-407
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| Contrast Effect |
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| Similarity and Liking | pp 412-415, 420
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| Complementarity | the popularly supposed tendency, in a relationship between to people, for each to complete what is missing in the other. pp 415
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| Reward Theory of Attraction | the theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events; pp 418-420
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| Passionate Love | a state of intense longing for union with another. passionate lovers are absorbed in each other, feel ecstatic at attaining their partner's love, and are disconsolate on losing it. pp 421-423, 426-427
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| Attachment Styles | pp 426-428
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| Secure Attachment | attachments rooted in trust and marked by intimacy, pp 427
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| Preoccupied (anxious-ambivalent) attachment | attachments marked by a sense of one's own unworthiness and anxiety, ambivalence, and possessiveness; pp 428
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| Dismissive attachment | an avoidant relationship style marked by distrust of others pp 428
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| Fearful attachment | an avoidant relationship style marked by fear of rejection pp 428
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| Equity in Relationships | a condition in which the outcomes people recieve from a relationship are proportional to what they contribute to it. Note: Equitable outcomes needn't be equal outcomes. pp 428-430
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| Self-disclosure and Relationships | revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others; p 430-432
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| Disclosure Reciprocity | the tendency for one person's intimacy of self-disclosure to match that of a conversational partner. pp 430
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| Altruism | a motive to increase another's welfare without conscious regard for one's self-interests pp 443, 454-459, 490-491
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| Social-exchange Theory | the theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one's rewards and minimize one's costs pp 443-448
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| Egoism | a motive (supposedly underlying all behavior) to increase one's own welfare. The opposite of altruism, which aims to increase another's welfare. pp 445, 452, 458
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| Reciprocity Norm | an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them, p 449, 453
-454
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| Social Capital | the mutual support and cooperation enabled by a social network, pp 449
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| Social-Responsibility Norm | an expectation that people will help those needing help, pp 449-451, 465
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| Kin Selection | the idea that evolution has selected altruism toward one's close relatives to enhance the survival of mutually shared genes. pp 452-453
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| Empathy | the vicarious experience of another's feelings; putting oneself in anothers shoes, pp 455-459, 518, 518
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| Bystander Effect | the finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders pp 462-463
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| Door-in-the-face Technique | a strategy for gaining a concession. After someone first turns down a large request (the door-in-the-face), the same requester counteroffers with a more reasonable request. pp 474-475
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| Moral Exclusion | the perception of certain individuals or grups as outside the bounary within which one applies moral values and rules of fairness. More inclusion is regarding others as within one's circle of moral concern, pp 476
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| Conflict | a conceived incompatibility of actions or goals; pp 483-499
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| Peace | a condition marked by low levels of hostility and aggression and by mutually beneficial relationships pp 484
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| Social Trap | a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing its self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior. Examples include the prisoner's dilemma and the tragedy of the commons pp 485-488
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| Prisoners' Dilemma | pages 485-486
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| Tragedy of the Commons | the "commons" is any shared resource, including air, water, energy sources, and food supplies. The tragedy occurs when individuals consume more than their share, with the cost of their doing so dispersed among all, causing the ultimate collapse. p 486-487
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| Non-zero-sum Games | games in which outcomes need not sum to zero. With cooperation, both can win; with competition, both can lose p 488
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| Sherif and the Robber's Cave Experiment | pp 491-492
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| Mirror-image Perceptions | reciprocal views of each other often held by parties i conflict; for example, each may view itself as moral and peace-loving and the other as evil and aggressive. pp 494-497
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| Equal-Status Contact | contact on an equal basis. just as a rlationshp btween ppl of =/= status breeds attitudes consistent with their relationsihp, so do those between those of equal status. To reduce prejudice, interracial contact shd B Btween persons equal in status p 504
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| Superordinate Goal | a shared goal that necessitates cooperative effor; a goal that overrides people's differences from one another, pp 508-509
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| Bargaining | seeking an agreement to a conflict through direct negotiation between parties. pp 514-515
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| Mediation | an attempt by a neutral third party to resolve a conflict by facilitating communication ad offering suggestions pp 514-518
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| Arbitration | resolution of a conflict by a neutral third party who studies both sides and imposes a settlement pp 514, 518-519
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| GRIT | Acronym for Graduated and Reciprocated Initiative in Tension Reduction - a strategy designed to deescalate tensions pp 519-520
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| Clinical Psychology | the study, assessment, and treatment of people with psychological difficulties. pp 526-532
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| Accuracy in Clinical Judgments | pp 526-532
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| Illusory Correlations | perception of a relationship where non exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists pp 527
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| Hindsight Bias | the tendency to exaggerate, after learning an outcome, one's ability to have foreseen how something turned out. AKA the I knew it all along phenomenon pp 528
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| Self-Confirming Bias | 529
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| Depressive Realism | the tendency of mildly depressed people to make accurate rather than self-serving judgments, attributions and prediction pp 533
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| Explanatory Style | one's habitual way of explaining life events. a negative, pessimistic, depressive explanatory style attributes failure to stable, global, and internal causes, pp 533, 535, 537, 543-544, 546-547
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| Behavioral Medicine | an interdisciplinary field that integrates and applies behavioral and medial knowledge about health and disease; p 540
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| Health Psychology | the study of the psychological roots of health and illness. provides psychology's contribution to medicine. pp 540-544
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| Social-psychological approaches to treatment |
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| Behaviors influence attitudes | see above
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| Attribute changes to self | see above
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| Relationship between significant others and health | pp 549-551
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| When people experience a loss of self-awareness as well as evaluation apprehension, they are in a state of | deindividuation
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| A false impression of what other people are thinking, feeling or responding is what social psychologists call | pluralistic ignorance
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| Under the definition that is in the text, which of the following is NOT a group? | five people riding the city bus
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| Triplett conducted one of social psychology's first laboratory experiments by asking children to wind string on a fishing reel. The results of the study [truncated] Later studies found the same pattern and dubbed it | the social facilitation effect.
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| _______ refers to the tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal than when they are individually accountable. | Social loafing
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| Martha is excellent at organizing her employees, setting goals and focusing on achieving those goals for the company. Martha excels in | task leadership.
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| Group polarization occurs when group discussion _______ group members' initial inclinations. | strengthens
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| Consistent with the social facilitation effect, Michaels and his colleagues (1982) found that when good pool players were observed, they did _______ than when they did not know they were being observed. | better
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| The tendency for people to believe that individuals get what they deserve and deserve what they get is called the _______ phenomenon. | just-world
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| The phrase "they are all alike, but we are diverse" reflects | the outgroup homogeneity effect.
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| _______ is a negative attitude; _______ is a negative behavior. | Prejudice; discrimination
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| The realistic group conflict theory suggests that prejudice arises | when groups compete for scarce resources.
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| A belief about the personal attributes of a group of people is called a(n) | stereotype.
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| In examining photographs of people in magazines and newspapers, Archer and his colleagues (1993) found that, relative to the average female photo, the average male photo is more likely to | emphasize the face.
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| A belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic and cultural group is called | ethnocentrism.
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| People vary in how likely they are to expect that others will stereotype them. This is called | stigma consciousness.
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| A tendency to favor one's group is called | an ingroup bias.
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| In the 1940s, researchers Clark and Clark (1947) gave African-American children a choice between Black dolls and White dolls. Results showed that most children | chose the White dolls.
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| The perception that one is less well off than others is referred to as | relative deprivation.
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| Violent crimes are more likely committed | when the weather is hot.
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| The redirection of aggression to a target other than the source of the frustration is referred to as | displacement.
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| The _______ view of aggression is that aggressive drive is reduced when one "releases" aggressive energy. | cathartic
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| According to Albert Bandura, an important influence on one's tendency to be aggressive is | observations of others' behavior.
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| ______ aggression aims to hurt only as a means to some other end | Instrumental
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| Research on alcohol and aggression has indicated that | in experiments, intoxicated people administer stronger shocks, people who have been drinking commit more than half of all homicides., many battering spouses cease their violent behavior when they cease drinking. (ALL OF THE ABOVE)
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| The death penalty does not effectively deter homicide. One reason for this is that most murders are the result of | hostile aggression.
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| In an experiment by Zajonc and his colleagues, participants were exposed to brief novel passages of music while they focused their attention on other tasks. Results indicated that mere exposure lead to liking | even when people were unaware of what they had been exposed to.
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| Research suggests that randomly assigned college roommates | will most likely become friends.
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| The tendency for opposites to mate or marry | has never been reliably demonstrated
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| You are a regular contributor to an Internet chat room. One day the other participants seem to ignore every comment you make. Research suggests you will likely | experience stress and a depressed mood.
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| Which of the following best expresses the meaning of the physical attractiveness stereotype? | What is beautiful is good.
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| Brent is a W/m who has been given a choice to work with Darwin or Ken. Darwin is a Black man who shares many of Brent's values and attitudes and Ken is a White man who shares little in common with Brent. Who will Brent like and want to work with most? | Darwin
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| One national survey found that 86% of those who were unhappily married but who stayed with the marriage, were, when reinterviewed five years later | mostly "very" or "quite" happy.
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| We like people with whom we associate good feelings. This fact is consistent with the ___________ theory of attraction. | reward
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| Hatfield and his colleagues (1966) matched University of Minnesota freshmen for a Welcome Week dance. When the students were asked to evaluate their dates, what determined whether they liked each other? | physical attractiveness
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| Rosalinda, who is attractive, very intelligent, and high in social status, marries Jorge, who is also attractive, very intelligent, and high in social status. Their relationship is best understood as an example of | the matching phenomenon.
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| The idea that altruism towards one's close relatives enhances the survival of mutually shared genes is referred to as | kin selection.
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| Which of the following is an effective way to increase helping behavior? | model prosocial behavior
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| The opposite of altruism is | egoism.
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| If victims seem to have created their own problems by laziness or lack of foresight, people are less willing to offer help. Helping responses are thus closely tied to | attributions
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| In observing people's responses to staged emergencies, Darley and Latané (1970) found that _______ greatly decreased intervention | the presence of other bystanders
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| The motive to increase another's welfare without conscious regard for one's self-interests defines | altruism
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| Few findings have been more consistent than those that show that _______ people are helpful people. | happy
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| The notion that humans interact in such a way as to minimize costs and maximize rewards to the self is referred to as | the social-exchange theory.
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| The social responsibility norm refers to the expectation that | people will help those dependent upon them.
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| In an enactment of the Good Samaritan situation, Darley and Batson (1973) studied the helpfulness of Princeton seminarians in order to assess whether helping behavior was influenced by | time pressures.
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| A goal that overrides people's differences from one another is called a(n) | superordinate goal.
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| In playing the laboratory version of the Prisoner's Dilemma, you would personally obtain the best payoff on any given trial if you _______ and the other person _______. | confess; does not confess
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| Research on laboratory dilemmas reveals that cooperation is facilitated if | the opponents can communicate with one another.
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| The reciprocal views that parties in conflict often hold of one another are referred to as | mirror-image perceptions.
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| Aronson's jigsaw technique involved having elementary school children | form academically and racially diverse groups with each member of the group becoming an expert in one area.
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| Pursuing one's self-interest to the collective detriment of one's community or society is the central pattern in | a social dilemma.
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| Which of the following is NOT one of the four C's of peacemaking identified in the text? | correction
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| Which of the following is NOT one of the steps in Osgood's (1980) GRIT strategy? | Build up first-strike capability to negotiate from a position of strength.
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| _______ occurs when a neutral third party studies a conflict and imposes a settlement. | Arbitration
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| When individuals consume more than their share, and the cost of doing so is dispersed among all, the result is called | the tragedy of the commons.
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| Rosenhan and his colleagues (1973) faked schizophrenic symptoms to infiltrate mental hospitals. Once they had been admitted and no longer complained of any fake symptoms, | the clinicians sought and found evidence in their histories and behavior to confirm their admitting diagnoses.
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| When researchers pit statistical prediction—such as predicting graduate school success using a formula that includes grades and aptitude scores—against interviewers’ intuitive prediction, | statistical prediction is usually superior to expert intuition.
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| The tendency of mildly depressed people to make accurate rather than self-serving judgments is referred to as | depressive realism.
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| Loneliness is best described as a state created by the awareness that you | have less numerous or meaningful social relationships than you desire.
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| According to the text, shyness is a form of _______ characterized by self-consciousness and worrying about what others think. | social anxiety
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| Brodt and Zimbardo (1981) found that shy women were no longer shy when they | were provided an alternative explanation for their social anxiety.
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| Psychology’s contribution to the interdisciplinary field of behavioral medicine is | health psychology.
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| According to the text, which of the following is a social-psychological principle that can be applied to the treatment of psychological difficulties? | attitudes-follow-behavior
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| John was recently attacked and mugged on a subway. He is less likely to experience long term stress from the trauma if he | talks about it with a friend.
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| As a result of participating in a program to help her quit smoking, Anne has not had a cigarette for three weeks. She is least likely to return to smoking if she attributes her success in quitting the habit to | her own motivation.
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