Learning Exam 3
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| Black box | behaviorism, only concerned with stimulus and response, how they are connected and learned, not concerned with the mind and what goes on inside
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| Information processing | Cognitive approach, how mind works
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| Retention | Amount of information that can be remembered (not remembered) from memory following a time delay.
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| Forgetting | Amount of information that is not remembered following a time delay.
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| Proactive interference (PI) | old learning interferes with retention of new learning.
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| Proactive facilitation (PF) | old learning facilitates the retention of new learning.
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| Retroactive interference (RI) | New learning interferes with retention of old learning.
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| Retroactive facilitation (RF) | New learning facilitates the retention of old learning.
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| Sensory memory | very brief, different memory for each sense
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| Short-term memory | brief- 30 seconds, limited- 7 +/- 2, takes info from sensory, chunks it, passes to long term
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| Iconic storage | brief visual memory, quarter to half of a second. light tail.
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| Echoic storage | brief auditory memory. echo.
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| Working memory | retrieve memory from long term into short term for use
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| Flashbulb memory | Base decisions on vivid memories (overestimate fires due to vivid memories of fires)
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| Procedural memory | activity memory, how to do things
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| Semantic memory | concept memory. remembering theory of evolution.
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| Episodic memory | event memory. where you were during 9/11
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| Implicit memory | unconscious memories
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| Primacy effect | first information remembered well
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| Recency effect | last information remembered well
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| State dependent learning | test and study states should match for best memory.
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| Cue dependent learning (encoding specificity) | remember only when in same environment as where learned
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| Mnemonics | any technique used to remember, including rhyme and acronyms.
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| Prompts (prompted recall) | give memory triggers.
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| Method of loci system | uses spatial relations to remember
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| Peg word system | a list of words is learned and associated with numbers, then each word that needs to be memorized is associated with each word and number pair.
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| Keyword system | the sound of the word is associated with a related image
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| Overlearning | keep studying even after learned.
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| Free recall | write down whatever you known. unaided recall.
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| Relearning (savings) | if relearning is faster, then have memory for it
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| Recognition | show material and see if they can identify it. multiple choice.
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| Delayed matching to sample | show animal a stimulus. see if they respond to that stimulus later.
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| Delayed extinction | forgetting shown by rapid extinction
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| Gradient degradation | generalization shows degradation of memory
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| Paired associates | pair information
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| Reminiscence | memory improves after a period of forgetting
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| What are the major premises of behaviorism? How are these different from cognitive psychology? | Behavior (dependent) is the function of environmental changes (independent). Mental concepts are unnecessary. Study only observable behavior. Don’t infer mental states from behavior. Describe the behavior itself (e.g., just say Mary did not respond).
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| What approach does behaviorism take toward the study of learning? | Measure the response (usually a class of behaviors not a specific response--e.g., whatever it takes to press a bar). Specify the setting (what stimuli are the organisms responding to?). Identify the reinforcers and punishers that control behavior.
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| What approach is taken by cognitive psychology? | Identify important environmental conditions.
Observe changes in behavior. Infer the mental processes required to explain the behavior
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| How are behaviorism or cognitive the same or different? | They both identify environmental conditions and observe behavior, but cognitive infers mental processes and behaviorism does not.
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| What are the four processing stages for information acquisition according to the cognitive approach to learning? | input/stimulus, sensory memory, short-term memory, encoding.
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| What are the four processing stages for information retention and retrieval according to the cognitive approach to learning? | input/stimulus, search/compare, decision, output/response.
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| Describe what happens to proactive interference as the time between task completion and testing increases. | The difference in memory starts small and increases exponentially.
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| Describe what happens to retroactive interference as the time between task completion and testing increases. | There is a difference but effects diminish after time.
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| What are the three stages of memory? | Acquisition, retention, retrieval.
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| What are the three types of memory systems? | Sensory, short term/working, long term
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| What are the major reasons why memories fail? | retrieval failure, interference, failure to store
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| What are the principle features of short-term memory (STM)? | short duration, limited capacity, interference, working memory
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| What are the main differences between the four types of long-term memory (LTM)? | Explicit: Declarative- general factual information that can be put in words. Episodic- personal autobiographical. Implicit: procedural- how to do things. conditioning- formed through conditioning processes
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| How do researchers explain the primacy effect in serial learning? | First information put into long term memory, no proactive interference
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| How do researchers explain the recency effect in serial learning? | Last information still in short term memory, no retroactive interference.
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| Identify and explain seven ways to improve memory. | overlearn, shorten the retention interval, relate information to prior experience, reproduce the learning context, mnemonics, prompts
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| Modeling (Imitation) | Learning by watching others perform and copying the behavior. Learning can occur regardless of effects on the others.
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| Vicarious learning | Learning by watching a model get reinforced or punished. Learning can occur with or without copying the model
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| Extrinsic reward | external motivation (money reward, social needs)
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| intrinsic reward: | internal motivation (desire to learn, succeed)
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| Overjustification effect | external reward undermines internal reward, become less internal motivated
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| Learned helplessness | self-doubt, apathy, due to past failures
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| Self reinforcement | reinforcement does not need to come from external source, can set own reinforcement schedule
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| Self efficacy | General belief of ability to master any task due to previous success
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| Rule of reciprocity | balance social relations. eg return favors (quid pro quo).
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| Rule of commitment | tendency to honor commitments.
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| Door in the face effect | balance denials and acceptances. large request denied, small request more likely to then be accepted.
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| Foot in the door effect | if small request is accepted, large request is then more likely to be accepted.
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| Representativeness rule/bias | make decisions based on how events are presented.
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| Availability rule/bias | Decisions based on what first comes to mind
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| Illusory correlation | Decisions based on assumed, but false, correlations
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| Hindsight | Make decisions based on already knowing the outcome.
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| Latent learning | Passive learning that occurs without performance. Example: Cognitive map (riding through a maze in a cart). Learning is demonstrated when performance is rewarded.
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| Meta-cognition | self-awareness of internal processes that helps a person plan, monitor, control learning environment
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| What three entities (abbreviated P, E, and B) form the foundation for social learning? | Person (mental activity, personality, attitudes, emotions), environment, behavior.
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| Explain what is meant by “performance without learning.” | A person can perform the same
action as another (via modeling or imitation) without necessarily learning from the model (e.g., a child imitates his big brother despite the fact that the brother is punished for the action).
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| Explain what is meant by “learning without performance.” | A person can learn from a model without performing (imitating) the behavior (e.g., a parent raises her kids directly contrary to how she was raised).
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| What is “generalized imitation?” | We learn a general rule that modeling is good, even when in a particular case we don’t see the benefits (e.g., people looking up from the sidewalk, children imitating their parents).
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| Why do learning researchers think that vicarious classical conditioning is doubtful? | observer does not need to see the shock, only the model’s fear, in order to create conditioned fear response to CS. Does not demonstrate vicarious classical conditioning, just simple conditioning.
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| What are some examples of vicarious operant conditioning? | A parent is patient and respectful and get what they want so the child acts the same way. A parent yells and does not get what they want so the child does not yell.
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| According to Bandura’s theory, what are the four cognitive processes that underlie and govern observational learning? | Attention, Retention, Production, attributes, Motivation
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| Under what conditions does goal setting works best? | set hard, reachable goals; set specific, not general goals; commit yourself to the goals; seek feedback and rewards from others and yourself
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| Identify and explain six ways to increase self control. |
physical restraint, distancing, distraction, satiation (prevent overeating by eating snack before), recruit the help of others, monitor behavior (weigh self frequently)
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| Internal mental processes | memory, abstract reasoning, critical judgment,
language representation, spatial representation, conceptual/analytical thought, creative thinking, problem solving
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| Lateral thinking: | Thinking outside the box
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| Anagrams: | scrambled letters, have to order properly to create word
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| Algorithm: | set of procedures that will guarantee solution to problem
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| Heuristic | solution applied that won’t guarantee right answer but provides short cut that is likely to lead to answer
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| Functional fixedness | fixated on function of tool, but won’t work in new situation, have to use differently.
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| Problem solving set: | Pattern of solving problems forms mind set that can’t be broken to solve problem.
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| Satisficing | Not looking for very best optimal solution, just good enough. (choosing a college, mate, house, solving mysteries)
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| Habit family hierarchy | At beginning of problem, do usual behaviors, problem answer not most likely, but as usual behaviors are not reinforced and the problem answer is, that behavior becomes most likely.
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| Insight | Come up with solution just by thinking about it, perceiving problem in new way
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| Perceptual restructuring | Thinking about situation in new way
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| Goal direction | Have goal in mind, then have insights on how to get to that goal, sometimes with hints.
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| Search-scan scheme | Balance between searching for alternative solutions (moves) and scanning the consequences of a solution (e.g., chess).
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| Means-end analysis | Break problem into sub-goals (sub-problem) then solve each sub-goal (e.g., travel plans).
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| Working backwards | Start with a known solution, then follow steps backward to the problem state (e.g., math problems, Tower of Hanoi)
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| Planning process | Reduce problem to a simpler form. Start with smaller problem, then solve (e.g., anagrams- pull out vowels, unscramble consonants then insert vowels, poker chip problem)
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| Symbolic thought | language symbols, images, prototypes
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| Creative fluency | Able to generate many ideas
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| Creative flexibility | Able to give up on a bad approach and find another
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| Originality | Able to think of novel or unusual ideas
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| Pragmatic creativity | Able to think of useful, practical solutions
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| Divergent creativity | ideas branch off, can come up with many. (unusual uses)
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| Convergent creativity | take many things and put together into one new thing. (remote associates)
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| Attribute learning | Identify the relevant features or dimensions (e.g., classical conditioning has CS, UCS, reflex responses; cars are big, have wheels, move).
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| Rule learning | Discover how attributes are combined
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| Affirmation rule | Concept has a single attribute that is either present or absent (e.g., Speed Limit = 65 MPH)
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| Conjunction rule | Concept has two or more attributes and all must be present (e.g., Car = big and wheels and doors and moves; Women = adult and female).
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| Disjunction rule | Concept has two or more attributes, either or both can be present (e.g., Road = asphalt or gravel; Doctor = Ph.D. or M.D. or both).
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| Conditional rule | Concept has two or more attributes defined by conditional “if then” rule (e.g., Speed Zone = If sign is posted, then drive below posted speed; if no sign is posted, then drive at
25 MPH)
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| Reversal shift | reverse rules. learn 4 new things (avoid white, approach black- switch to avoid black, approach white)
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| Extradimensional shift | change dimension. only learn 2 new things(avoid black, approach white- switch to avoid squares, approach circles)
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| Preparation | Representing, understanding, or encoding the problem. Two Train Problem, Brain Teasers, Nine Dots, Match Sticks, Lateral thinking (outside the box), Often most important and time-consuming stage.
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| Production | Generation of possible solutions, devising a solution plan
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| Judgement | Evaluation of possible solutions or approaches for their appropriateness. Simple versus complex problems, Loopback or pause.
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| Incubation | Temporary withdrawal from problem
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| What are the four stages of problem solving? | Preparation, production, judgement, incubation
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| Which one is usually the most important? Which one is often not necessary? | Preparation. Incubation
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| classical view of concepts | A concept is a class of stimuli sharing common attributes combined by a set of rules (graduation requirements, traffic laws, course concepts)
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| ecological view of concepts | A concept is a loosely defined set of stimuli defined by prototypal examples (animals, love)
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| What is the basic idea behind the behavioral theory of concept learning? | Reinforcement of relevant attributes (S) strengthens the common response (R)--e.g., chew on stimuli that look like “rawhide toy.” Non-Reinforcement (extinction) or punishment of irrelevant attributes weakens common response-dont chew “slippers”
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| What is the basic idea behind the cognitive theory of concept learning? | Connection between physical stimulus (S) and overt (observable) response (R) is bridged by an internal (not observable) mental event (m)
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| What are Piaget’s four developmental stages? | Symbolic thought (language symbols, images, prototypes) Reversible thought (conservation problems, using hierarchies) Abstract thought (hypotheses testing, hypothetical reasoning)
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| What is the “solution shift” experiment? What did it aim to prove? | teach a child to avoid white square and circle, approach black circle and square. Then shift rules, either reversal or extradimensional to see which is easier.
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| What prediction does behavioral theory make regarding the ease or difficulty of a reversal shift versus an extradimensional shift when classifying geometric patterns? | extradimensional is easier because learn fewer new things. Already know proper response to two stimuli, just learn response to two new stimuli.
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| What prediction does cognitive theory make regarding the ease or difficulty of a reversal shift versus an extradimensional shift when classifying geometric patterns? | reversal because already learned which dimension is relevant, just reverse rules, but extradimensional have to think of new dimension and learn proper response.
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| Phonemes | sounds of spoken language
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| Monosyllabic cries | single syllable sounds
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| Morphemes | Meaningful sounds/units of language, mostly words but also prefixes and suffixes
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| Syntax | how words are combined into sentences. Grammar is proper syntax.
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| Syntactic differentiation | Differentiate between nouns and verbs.
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| Semantics | meaning behind what is said.
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| Semantic differentiation | learn subtle differences between words. such as red and yellow, vs light red and green-yellow.
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| Pragmatics | Way language is used in everyday life. eg don’t monopolize conversation, don’t give too much or too little information,
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| Cooing | cute baby sounds. coordinate sensing, moving, and vocalizations
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| Babbling | babies make many sounds. every sound they can.
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| Echolalic speech | echo what baby hears. babies make only sounds of their language
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| Holophrastic speech | single words as complete sentences or phrases.
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| Telegraphic speech | two words sentences. can now differentiate nouns and verbs but use only essential words.
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| Linguistic universal | basic features that exist in all languages, subject-verb, consonant-vowel
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| Critical period | birth to 8 or 9, children quickly learn language.
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| Hemispheric specialization | brain hemispheres each perform different tasks, left side is language.
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| Broca’s area | speech production
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| Wernicke’s area | speech comprehension
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| Sensorimotor thought | child tries to understand world with sensory and motor
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| Pre-operational thought | object permanence. simple classification.
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| Concrete operational thought | complex classification. reversibility.
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| Formal thought | abstract, hypothetical reasoning.
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| Identify and explain five problems with a behavioral explanation of language learning. | Non-systematic (haphazard) reinforcement, Reinforce truth rather than syntax , Children do not imitate well; they filtered speech through their own syntax , Children say things not heard from adults, Rapid language learning by deaf and mute children
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| What are the basic processes that underlie the theory that language is based on a biological adaptation? | Language is innate capacity not just learned behavior, Given the right environment children rapidly acquire the sounds and rules. Children not born with knowledge of language, born with a language facility that predisposes them to learn language
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| What is the main evidence used to support the view that language learning is based on a biological adaptation? | Linguistic universals, Species-specific ), Critical period, Hemispheric specialization, Brain neurology (Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area)
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| What are the principal arguments used to support the cognitive theory of language learning? | Competence versus performance: Cognition explains both. Mental representation: Language is just another way of mentally representing reality. Hemispheric specialization: Not just related to language, but also to different forms of cognition
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| What are the three problems faced by a cognitive theory of language learning? | Cognitive and linguistic development run on separate timetables. Children have difficulty acquiring language past a critical stage, but normal intelligence. Cognitive mechanisms are not so powerful to acquire language as fast as they do.
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| What are the primary conclusions we can draw from attempts to teach language to apes? | Apes can express themselves symbolically, can invent new signs. Not clear if use syntax. follow rules of grammar, or simply respond to subtle reinforcers and imitate their human teachers? Apes seem to master language at the level of a 2-3 year old child
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| Evolution | The changes in species over time
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| Teleology | The view that changes in a species imply a purpose or a intelligent design
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| Natural selection | Changes in the environment/genes make certain characteristics more or less useful for survival. Genes that produce useful characteristics for a given environment are more likely to be passed on to future generations of the species (does not imply purpose)
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| Ontogeny | The development of an individual that combines learning history, inherited traits (genetics), and biological maturation. such as language learning in humans
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| Instinctive drift | Some species come to certain learning situations “resistant” to learning
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| Imprinting | period in which animals form attachments. learn the behaviors of their species
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| What are some of the prenatal conditions that tend to reduce learning ability? | Neurotoxins (substances that damage nerve tissue) in the mother can be passed to the fetus and produce a child with learning deficits. Disease and malnutrition during fetal development can reduce learning ability.
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| What are some of the postnatal conditions that tend to reduce learning ability? | Neurotoxins can retard learning ability after birth (e.g., lead). Head injuries can retard learning ability after birth (e.g., violent shaking)
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| Early protohumans (e.g., Australopithecus afarensis) | Extra brain capacity is no different than modern apes.
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| Later species (e.g., Homo habilis and Homo erectus) | Extra brain capacity is somewhere between modern ape and modern human.
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| Modern humans (Homo sapiens) | Brains are three times larger than modern apes our size (especially the frontal lobe).
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| What events probably prepared the way for tool use? | Bipedalism (walking upright) freed the hands for tool use. Enlarged brain areas that serve speech also serve manual dexterity. Speech used to instruct others in tool making and use. Speech freed hands during tool making and use.
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| What is it about the evolution of language that seems to parallel language acquisition in children? | Specialization of vocalizations: hunting and tool use required speech sounds (talk in dark, free hands)
Vocalizations with gestures and contextual cues Development of syntactical elements (e.g., nouns, verbs)
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| proto-dog | dog derived from wolves domesticated to house dog
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| Preparedness | genetic predisposition to learning (ex. rats will never eat something again if it made them sick, are prepared to avoid it)
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| Flight distance | -how close an animal will allow humans (or anything else it perceives as dangerous) to get before it runs away
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| What can humans do that other animals cannot? | plan, discuss, invent
1. Binary thinking (i.e. life vs. death, good vs. evil, self vs. non-self).
2. Casual thinking
3. Speech and language
4. Long term thinking and planning
5. Large memory capacity capable of making cast connect
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| What do the Belyav experiments on foxes in Siberia suggest about the possible evolution of the dog? | You can train animals to become domestic through generations.
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| How did the wolf evolve into the modern dog according to evolutionary scientists? | Proto-dog evolved from the wolf to take advantage of companionship with humans.
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| How does evolution theory explain the human penchant for myth, ritual, and religion? | Complex brains have the neural machinery to separate the self from the non-self , which creates a sense of spiritual union, mystic transcendence, or god. Through these beliefs we are drawn together through common beliefs and rituals.
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