Sociology
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| Define social stratification | the systematic inequalities among groups of people based on: 1. wealth & income (social class) 2. racial inequality 3. gender inequality
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| Define equality/inequality | 1. ontological equality 2. equality of opportunity 3. equality of condition 4. equality of outcome
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| why does inequality exist? | generated by 3 processes: 1.unequal division of labor and/or low mobility across occupations 2. surplus/abundance of resources 3. the desire to accumulate wealth & assests
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| what are the types of social mobility? | horizontal, vertical, structual, exchange
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| why is the class structure changing? | 1. massive growth in inequality between the rich & poor, "the great u-turn"2.shrinking of the working class with same growth in middle class & working poor. 3.growth & poverty is increasing twice as fast as population growth
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| why is income inequality increasing? | largely due to increasing concentration of wealth of the very top of the income distribution; large fraction of economic gains go those at the top due to: changing tax codes, deunionization, weak social safety net & large, new multinational corporations
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| what are the consequences of inequality? | 1. high levels of incmoe inequality reduces social cohesion, overall health, overall wealth & education- Increase crime, debt, & political polarization. Some inequality is necessary to prompt competition & innovation- how much is unclear.
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| ontological equality | all equal
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| equality of opportunity | education at the beginning & end doesn't matter as long as we have equal opportunity
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| equality of condition | having the same conditions
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| equality of outcome | being equal in the end
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| the movement between different position within a system | social mobility, usually occupational mobility
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| horizontal social mobility | changing one's job, but not improving status
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| vertical social mobility | changing one's job to improve status
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| structural social mobility | changes in an economy that affect wealth
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| exchange social mobility | structure of economy stays the same & people gain or lose a job
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| Define race | usually thought of as a biological construct: phenotypical differences caused by generic variations & behavior, intelligence, & physical ability vary RECENT: not true- All races are subsets of each other
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| compare race vs. ethnicity | race- externally imposed, involuntary, hierarchical, exclusive, unequal. Ethnicity: cultural/national, voluntarily, self-defined, fluid, non-hierchial
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| Define white ethnicity and privilege | fluctuated over time; recent scholarly attention; Privileges: mainstream, normative cultural standards; equated with American civic identity & national interests; white cultural, political & economic power are taken for granted; whiteness is often hidden
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| reasons for American diveristy | immigration & immigration law is responsible for American diversity
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| types of racism | Individual/Ideological. symbolic/laisez faire. colorblind. Institutional. Structural/Systematic
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| affirmative action | Education, employment, criticisms, counter aurguments
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| the future of race in America | by 2050: Americans will have no racial majority; 20% Americans will identify as multiracial; Latino & Asians will make up 25% & 8% of the US, respectively
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| ways of defining poverty | 3 ways: economic well being, capability, social exclusion
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| ways we help those in poverty | Government programs- Inkind; Government social assistance programs; private poverty alleviation
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| explanations for race and poverty in the inner-city | state policies,G.I. Bill.banks-"redlining" - reject blck applcatns 2x as often as white; residential segregation concentrates poverty; deindustrialization has led to high rates of unemployment in city. Bad schools,inconsist. work, assoc w/ poor job skills
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| current theory of social construction of race | is socially constructed; racial categories & the meaning of race vary over time & geogrpahically; racial status is differentially connected to systems of social inequality;meaning and inequalities conected with race are constantly defined & contested
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| Individual/Ideological | explaining human behavior or relations on the basis of "natural" biological characteristics of different races; few racists who are incorrect or irrational
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| symbolic/laisez faire | the persistent negative stereotyping of racial minorites & immigration in the US; involves blaming racial minorities for their position & resisting ameliorative policy efforts
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| colorblind | treating everyone "equally" by deliberately avoiding the discussion of race or priveleging any one race over others through laws & policies.
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| Institutional | policies & practices of particular institutions are implicated in the overt or covert perpetuation of social inequalities; e.g: "Jim Crow" laws & other US state policies
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| Structural/Systematic | the entire system of social inequalities based around race or the sum, of institutional & individual racism in a society; has moved from overt forms of discrimination to more covert & naturalized forms.
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| affirmative action -Education | first appeared 1968- Brown v.Board of Education; many universities have affirmative action programs; research shows increases in the # & success of non-whites on higher education, w/benefits for all students
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| affirmative action -employment | federal law covers federal agencies & contractors; effective @ improving labor market position of non-whites & women when enforced
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| affirmative action-criticisms | reverse discrimination; demeaning & harmful; harms business productivity; only benefits middle class minorities & harms lower class whites
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| affirmative action- counter aurguments | only 1-2% whites have been effected; stigmatizing recipients is a problem, but much worse outcome without it; no evidence to support & some evidence to refute
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| economic well being | 1 way of defining poverty: absolute v. relative
Abs: lacking the basic means of survival REl: Beig poor in relation to others in society
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| capability | 1 way of defining poverty- based on other things than money
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| social exclusion | 1 way of defining poverty- excluded from the life based on your status; less common definitions.
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| what is the paradox of poverty reduction? | the more targeted benefits are, the less likely they are to reduce poverty. Increase distinctions btwn citizens, making easy target for cuts. Strong evidence for this effect.
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| address specific needs of those in poverty: SNAP or "food stamp" program; also school lunch programs, WIC programs, housing developments or vouchers for the working poor. about 1/4 to 1/3 of the aid to the poor. | Government programs- Inkind
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| benefits "in cash" to increase the income of those in poverty; means tested- TANF, SSI; social insurance- unemployment insurance social security; majority of aid to the poor | Government social assistance programs
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| "In-kind" benefits provided by non-profit organization & churches; usually short term needs to those in poverty; about 10% of aid to the poor | private poverty alleviation
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| Define sex | biological characters dealing with sexual reproduction
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| Define gender | set of behavior, norms, actions, & roles defining what it means to be a woman or man in a particular society in specific time
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| Define sexuality | set of sexual feelings, desires, fantasies, behaviors & emotions. Usually one dominant type in a particular society a
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| Why sex and sexuality aren't just biological? | sex not = sexuality; five sexes multidimensional model no longer dichotomous. both biological & culture; brain research & hormone research inconclusive; weak biological explanations for gender . sexuality is determined by age 5
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| Compare gender & sex variations | gender difference & similarity coexist; gender as a central identity; Gender variations: across cultures, over time w/in same culture, intersectionality
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| Define gender roles | a master status & signif roles that we all play; set of behavior norms around assumed to accompany gender status. teacher of g.r. begins @ birth, g.r. are associated w/ power & priviledge. transgressions are punished, esp when males adopt female roles
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| What are the elements of sexuality? | desire,behavior & identity (dominated by orientation)sexuality is determined by age 5; varies across culture & time
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| Define sexual identities | fairly new social constructs; 2 types: orientation & behaviors. Sexual behavior becomes a identity when it dominates our sexual lives
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| What does "orientation" refer to? | sexual identity form/ heterosexuality, bisexuality, homosexuality, asexuality
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| What does "behaviors" refer to ? (re: sexual identities) | partialism, fetishism, sadomasohism, exhibitionism, perafelia (?)
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| What is the Definition of Family? | Cooperative group of adults organized to take charge of care of children
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| What are social rules around sex and marriage? | people marry for: expression of love, economic or political purpose, to raise children, or for sex
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| Describe family units | families live together in different ways: family of origin, family of procreation
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| Describe the rise and future of the traditional nuclear family | -nuclear family- married father and mother and their children,all sharing living quarters
-four changes of rise of nuclear family: compassionate marriage, industrial & capitalism, improved health and hygiene, longer childhoods
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| What are gender roles and family? | maintenance of traditional gender role ideas: men are still seen as workers, women are still seen as caretakers
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| Effects of divorce | women standard of living goes down, financial instability and emotional repercussions, remarriage and blended families
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| Family violence | violence against women, children, and elderly
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| Universal and structure of education | -primary: basic education and learning
-secondary: mostly compulsory, free to students
-tertiary (post-secondary): funded by tuition and taxes, optional
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| Describe race and class inequality in education | race and class interact, gaps in school funding lead to significant differences in schools, difference in school quality are associated with different levels of educational attainment
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| Preparing for College | -SAT & ACT are vital to the admission process
-inequality in test results
-does not project college readiness, readiness is low
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| Describe the credentialing of America | -the rapid expansion of higher education in a new feature of American society
-Credentialism-credentials as signals of social status or job qualification
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| Describe Inequality in Higher Education | -class and racial inequality in access and graduation rates
-primary barrier is rising tuition costs
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