Exam 1
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| Mode | the most frequently occurring scores in a distribution
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| Mean | the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
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| Median | the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
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| Range | the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
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| Standard deviation | a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
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| Normal curve (normal distribution) | a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68% fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes
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| Correlation coefficient | a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
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| Scatterplots | a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables.
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| Regression toward the mean | the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average
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| Statistical significance | a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
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| Cross-sectional study | a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
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| Longitudinal study | research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period of time
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| Aristotle | theorized about learning and memory, motivation and emotion, perception and personality.
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| Wilhelm Wundt | crated an experiment apparatus to measure the lag time between people’s hearing a ball hit a platform and them pressing a telegraph key.
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| Ivan Pavlov | Russian physiologist who pioneered the study of learning.
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| Sigmund Freud | Austrian physician who developed an influential theory of personality and emphasized the ways emotion responses affect our behavior.
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| Jean Piaget | Swiss biologist who was the most influential observer of children.
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| Introspection | focusing on inner sensations, images, and feelings.
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| John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner | demonstrated conditioned responses on "Little Albert"
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| psychology | the science of behavior and mental processes
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| nature-nurture issue | the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make the development of psychological traits and behaviors
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| basic research | pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
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| applied research | scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
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| SQ3R | Survey, Question, Read, Rehearse, and Review
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| hindsight bias | the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we should have foreseen it.
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| critical thinking | thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions
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| theory | an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
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| Hypothesis | a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
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| Operational definition | a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables
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| Replication | repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.
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| Case study | an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
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| Survey | a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.
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| Population | all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population)
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| Random sample | a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
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| Naturalistic observation | observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
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| Jane Goodall | famous for her work with observing chimpanzees using deception
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| Correlation | the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other.
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| Illusory correlation | the perception of a relationship where none exists
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| Experiment | a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable)
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| Random assignment | assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.
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| Experimental group | in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
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| Control group | in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
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| Double-blind procedure | an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo.
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| Placebo effect | experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
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| Independent variable | the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
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| Dependent variable | the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
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| Culture | the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from on generation to the next.
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| Associative learning | learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant learning).
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| Classical conditioning | a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
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| Learning | a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience.
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| Neutral stimulus (NS) | in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
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| Unconditioned response (UR) | in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response.
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| Unconditioned stimulus (US) | in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally triggers a response
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| Conditioned response (CR) | in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.
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| Conditioned stimulus (CS) | in classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus that, after association, comes to trigger a conditioned response.
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| Acquisition | in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response.
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| Higher-order conditioning | a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.
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| Extinction | the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS).
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| Spontaneous recovery | the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
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| Generalization | the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
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| Discrimination | in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
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| Respondent behavior | behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.
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| Operant conditioning | a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforce or diminished if followed by a punisher
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| Operant behavior | behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.
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| Law of effect | Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by a favorable consequences become more likely.
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| Operant chamber | in operant conditioning, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforce; attached devices record the animal’s bar pressing or key pecking.
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| Shaping | an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
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| Positive reinforcement | increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food.
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| Negative reinforcement | increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli.
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| Primary reinforcer | an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
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| Conditioned reinforcer | a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer.
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| Continuous reinforcement | reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
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| Partial (intermittent) reinforcement | reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.
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| Fixed-ratio schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
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| Variable-ration schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
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| Fixed-interval schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
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| Variable-interval schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
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| Punishment | an event that decreases the behavior it follows.
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| Cognitive map | a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment
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| Latent learning | learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
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| Instinctive drift | animals revert to their biologically predisposed patterns
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| Observational learning | learning by observing others.
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| Modeling | the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
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| Mirror neurons | frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy.
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| Prosocial behavior | positive, constructive, helpful behavior.
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| Social cognition | our attitudes and our explanations of people’s sometimes unexpected actions.
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| Social psychology | the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.
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| Attribution theory | the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition.
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| Fundamental attribution error | the tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.
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| Attitude | feelings, often influenced by our beliefs that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.
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| Central route persuasion | attitude-change path in which interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts.
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| Peripheral route persuasion | attitude-change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues, such as the speaker’s attractiveness.
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| Foot-in-the-door phenomenon | the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.
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| Role | a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position out to behave.
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| Cognitive dissonance theory | the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent.
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| Chameleon effect | an effect of unconsciously mimicking another individual’s actions or behaviors such as yawning or tapping a foot
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| Conformity | adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
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| Normative social influence | influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval
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| Informational social influence | influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality
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| Social facilitation | stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others
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| Social loafing | the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal rather than individually accountable.
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| Deindividuation | the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in-group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.
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| Group polarization | the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.
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| Groupthink | the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.
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| Minority influence | the power of one or two individuals to sway majorities
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| Prejudice | an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members.
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| Stereotype | a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.
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| Discrimination | unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members.
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| Just-world phenomenon | the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.
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| In-group | “us”: people with whom we share a common identity
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| Out-group | “them”: those perceived as different or apart from our group
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| In-group bias | the tendency to favor our own group
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| Scapegoat theory | the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
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| Other-race effect | the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races.
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| Aggression | any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy
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| Social scripts | unconscious behaviors on how to act in a new situation
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| Rape myth | the idea that some women invite or enjoy rape and get “swept away” while being “taken”
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| Mere exposure effect | the phenomenon that repeated exposure to a novel stimuli increases liking them
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| Reward theory of attraction | that we will like those whose behavior is rewarding to us and that we will continue relationships that offer more rewards than costs
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| Passionate love | an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship
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| Companionate love | the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined
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| Two-factor theory of emotion | emotions have two ingredients: physical arousal plus cognitive appraisal
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| Socrates, Plato, and Descartes | believed that the mind and body are separate.
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| Rene Descartes | suggested that animal spirits flow through the nerves so as to produce movements of the body.
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| Charles Darwin | highlighted the reproductive advantage of environmentally adaptive traits.
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| false consensus effect | the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our attitude
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| Equity | a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it
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| Self-disclosure | revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others
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| Altruism | unselfish regard for the welfare of others
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| Bystander effect | the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
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| Social exchange theory | the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.
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| Reciprocity norm | an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.
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| Social responsibility norm | an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them.
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| Conflict | a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.
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| Social trap | a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, became caught in mutually destructive behavior.
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| Mirror-image perceptions | mutual views often help by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive.
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| Superordinate goals | shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation
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| GRIT | Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction: a strategy designed to decrease international tensions
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| William James | an American philosopher who became the author of an important 1890 textbook.
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| Margaret Floy Washburn | the first woman to receive a psychology Ph. D.
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| B. F. Skinner | rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior.
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