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PSY 2012

Exam 1

QuestionAnswer
Mode the most frequently occurring scores in a distribution
Mean the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
Median the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
Range the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
Standard deviation a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
Normal curve (normal distribution) a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68% fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes
Correlation coefficient a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
Scatterplots a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables.
Regression toward the mean the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average
Statistical significance a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
Cross-sectional study a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
Longitudinal study research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period of time
Aristotle theorized about learning and memory, motivation and emotion, perception and personality.
Wilhelm Wundt crated an experiment apparatus to measure the lag time between people’s hearing a ball hit a platform and them pressing a telegraph key.
Ivan Pavlov Russian physiologist who pioneered the study of learning.
Sigmund Freud Austrian physician who developed an influential theory of personality and emphasized the ways emotion responses affect our behavior.
Jean Piaget Swiss biologist who was the most influential observer of children.
Introspection focusing on inner sensations, images, and feelings.
John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner demonstrated conditioned responses on "Little Albert"
psychology the science of behavior and mental processes
nature-nurture issue the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make the development of psychological traits and behaviors
basic research pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
applied research scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
SQ3R Survey, Question, Read, Rehearse, and Review
hindsight bias the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we should have foreseen it.
critical thinking thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions
theory an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
Hypothesis a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Operational definition a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables
Replication repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.
Case study an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
Survey a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.
Population all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population)
Random sample a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
Naturalistic observation observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Jane Goodall famous for her work with observing chimpanzees using deception
Correlation the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other.
Illusory correlation the perception of a relationship where none exists
Experiment a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable)
Random assignment assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.
Experimental group in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
Control group in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
Double-blind procedure an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo.
Placebo effect experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
Independent variable the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
Dependent variable the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
Culture the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from on generation to the next.
Associative learning learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant learning).
Classical conditioning a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
Learning a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience.
Neutral stimulus (NS) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
Unconditioned response (UR) in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response.
Unconditioned stimulus (US) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally triggers a response
Conditioned response (CR) in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.
Conditioned stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus that, after association, comes to trigger a conditioned response.
Acquisition in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response.
Higher-order conditioning a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.
Extinction the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS).
Spontaneous recovery the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
Generalization the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
Discrimination in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
Respondent behavior behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.
Operant conditioning a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforce or diminished if followed by a punisher
Operant behavior behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.
Law of effect Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by a favorable consequences become more likely.
Operant chamber in operant conditioning, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforce; attached devices record the animal’s bar pressing or key pecking.
Shaping an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
Positive reinforcement increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food.
Negative reinforcement increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli.
Primary reinforcer an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
Conditioned reinforcer a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer.
Continuous reinforcement reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
Partial (intermittent) reinforcement reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.
Fixed-ratio schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
Variable-ration schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
Fixed-interval schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
Variable-interval schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
Punishment an event that decreases the behavior it follows.
Cognitive map a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment
Latent learning learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Instinctive drift animals revert to their biologically predisposed patterns
Observational learning learning by observing others.
Modeling the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
Mirror neurons frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy.
Prosocial behavior positive, constructive, helpful behavior.
Social cognition our attitudes and our explanations of people’s sometimes unexpected actions.
Social psychology the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.
Attribution theory the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition.
Fundamental attribution error the tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.
Attitude feelings, often influenced by our beliefs that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.
Central route persuasion attitude-change path in which interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts.
Peripheral route persuasion attitude-change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues, such as the speaker’s attractiveness.
Foot-in-the-door phenomenon the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.
Role a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position out to behave.
Cognitive dissonance theory the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent.
Chameleon effect an effect of unconsciously mimicking another individual’s actions or behaviors such as yawning or tapping a foot
Conformity adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
Normative social influence influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval
Informational social influence influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality
Social facilitation stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others
Social loafing the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal rather than individually accountable.
Deindividuation the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in-group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.
Group polarization the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.
Groupthink the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.
Minority influence the power of one or two individuals to sway majorities
Prejudice an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members.
Stereotype a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.
Discrimination unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members.
Just-world phenomenon the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.
In-group “us”: people with whom we share a common identity
Out-group “them”: those perceived as different or apart from our group
In-group bias the tendency to favor our own group
Scapegoat theory the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
Other-race effect the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races.
Aggression any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy
Social scripts unconscious behaviors on how to act in a new situation
Rape myth the idea that some women invite or enjoy rape and get “swept away” while being “taken”
Mere exposure effect the phenomenon that repeated exposure to a novel stimuli increases liking them
Reward theory of attraction that we will like those whose behavior is rewarding to us and that we will continue relationships that offer more rewards than costs
Passionate love an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship
Companionate love the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined
Two-factor theory of emotion emotions have two ingredients: physical arousal plus cognitive appraisal
Socrates, Plato, and Descartes believed that the mind and body are separate.
Rene Descartes suggested that animal spirits flow through the nerves so as to produce movements of the body.
Charles Darwin highlighted the reproductive advantage of environmentally adaptive traits.
false consensus effect the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our attitude
Equity a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it
Self-disclosure revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others
Altruism unselfish regard for the welfare of others
Bystander effect the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
Social exchange theory the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.
Reciprocity norm an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.
Social responsibility norm an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them.
Conflict a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.
Social trap a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, became caught in mutually destructive behavior.
Mirror-image perceptions mutual views often help by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive.
Superordinate goals shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation
GRIT Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction: a strategy designed to decrease international tensions
William James an American philosopher who became the author of an important 1890 textbook.
Margaret Floy Washburn the first woman to receive a psychology Ph. D.
B. F. Skinner rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior.
Created by: JacobGant
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